UC-NRLF 


UNIVERSITY  FARM 


H8 


•  THE  RURAL  • 
EFFICIENCY  GUIDE 


4 

STOCK  BOOK 


BY 


G.  C.  HUMPHREY 

Head  of  Animal  Husbandry  Department, 
Wisconsin  State  University, 
Madison, 


THE  PEOPLES  EFFICIENCY 
PUBLISHING  CO. 

CLEVELAND.  O. 


1918 


Copyright   1917 

By 

The  People's  Efficiency  Publishing  Co. 
CLEVELAND,  OHIO 

• 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

THERE  never  was  a  time  in  the  history  of  the  world  when  it  was  so  necessary  for 
the   breeder  and   stock  raiser  to   be  efficient   in   his  work.     He  must   not  only 
raise  better  and   more  stock,   but   be  able   to  save   the  great  losses   which   are 
occurring    every    year    from    preventable    diseases.      The    magnitude    of    the    Animal 
Husbandrj   interests  may  be  judged  from  the  manufacture  of  meat  products.     In  the 
United    States    alone    during   the    year   1909   the    value    of    the    meat   products    of    the 
slaughter  and  packing  industries  or  establishments  amounted  to  the  enormous  sum  of 
$1,370,508,000.     In  value  of  the  products  turned  out,  these  industries  stand  at  the  head 
of  all  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  country. 

The  butter,  cheese  and  condensed  milk  industries  turn  out  products  valued  at 
$274,558,000  per  year,  and  yet  such  an  eminent  authority  as  Prof.  Haecker,  of  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  makes  the  statement  that  the  milk  producers  of  his 
state  are/ losing  all  their  profits  simply  because  of  lack  of  understanding  of  "how  to 
feed."  The  time  has* come  when  only  those  who  understand  feeding  are  in  a  position 
to  realize  the  maximum  profits  from  live  stock.  The  food  problem  lies  at  the  very 
basis  of  success  an  all  forms  of  animal  husbandry.  The  object  of  this  work  'is  to  so 
present  the  scientific  data  concerning  animal  foods  that  the  average  stockman  can 
make  rational  use  of  them. 

The  subject  of  scientific  breeding  is  of  vast  importance  in  all  forms  of  animal 
husbandry.  All  the  average  stockman  needs  is  a  clear  conception  of  the  type  desired 
to  be  produced  and  an  adaptation  of  means  to  that  end.  It  is  possible  for  him  to  get  a 
clear  conception  of  this  when  the  results  of  experience  are  presented  in  a  practical 
way. 

The  care  of  animals  in  ways  other  than  feeding  is  also  of  great  importance.  It 
is  estimated  on  good  authority  that  in  five  states  of  the  middle  west  during  a  ten-year 
period  the  average  loss  per  farm  was:  5  horses,  16  cattle,  19  sheep  and  64  hog's.  The 
Government  statistics  show  that  $200,000,000  worth  of  live  stock  was  lost  from  disease 
and  exposure  in  the  United  States  during  the  year  1915.  This  immense  loss  was  due 
largely  to  preventable  diseases  and  to  improper  care.  In  the  department  on  diseases 
in  this  book  is  presented  to  the  stockman  the  practical,  simple  methods  in  use  among 
the  most  successful,  efficient  stock  raisers  of  the  country.  If  these  are  put  into 
practice,  they  will  help  greatly  in  saving  a  large  percent  of  the  immense  loss  that 
the  farmers  are  now  sustaining.  Every  farmer  should  know  how  to  care  for  the 
simpler  difficulties. 

It  is  not  the  aim  of  the  author  or  compilers  to  substitute  suggestions  for  the 
services  of  a  veterinarian  in  any  locality.  It  is  too  well  recognized  that  a  lack  of  care 
and  attention  to  stock  is  in  a  large  way  responsible  for  the  development  of  many 
diseases  that  need  the  attention  of  a  veterinarian.  In  the  '  section  devoted  to  the 
diseases  of  stock,  we  merely  aim  to  give  suggestions  that  can  be  utilized  in  warding 
off  many  diseases  of  the  simpler  character  and  suggesting  how  the  stockman  may 
aid  the  local  veterinarian  where  greater  knowledge  ij  needed.  A  farmer  understands 
his  stock  better  than  anyone  else,  and  can  always  give  valuable  aid  in  explaining  the 
conditions  which  preceded  the  calling  of  the  veterinarian,  so  that  a  proper  analysis 
or  diagnosis  of  the  case  may  be  had. 

We  wish  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  to  "Klemheinz,  Sheep  Management," 
for  the  illustrations  on  "Docking  the  Lamb"  and  "Drenching  the  Sheep";  Fuller, 
Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture,  for  the  illustration  of  the  "A-Shaped  Colony  House 
for  Hogs";  Craig,  "Judging  Live  Stock,"  for  the  illustration  showing  the  "Horse's 
Mouth." 

If  the  book  accomplishes,  even  in  a  small  way,  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
written,  it  will  prove  a  very  valuable  source  of  information  for  the  farmer  and  stock 
raiser.  THE  AUTHOR. 


401241 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


STOCK 

Pages 
LIVE  STOCK  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 1-60 

CATTLE  PRODUCTION 7-60 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle,  Dairy  Cattle  Production  and  Management, 
Score  Card  for  Dairy  Cattle,  Feed  and  Care  of  The  Dairy  Cow,  The 
Composition  of  Feeds,  Buying  Feed  for  Dairy  Rations,  Description  and 
Definition  of  Concentrated  Feeds,  Barley,  Oats  and  Rye,  Buckwheat  By- 
Products,  Dairy  Farm  Organization,  Beef  Cattle  Production,  Score  Card 
for  Beef  Cattle,  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Cattle,  Stages,  Baby  Beef 
Production,  Selection  and  Management  of  Bulls. 

A  GUIDE  TO  THE  DISEASES  or  STOCK 61 

DISEASES  OF  CATTLE 62-100 

General  Symptoms,  Anatomy  of  Cattle,  Action  of  Drugs  in  Cattle  and 
Horses,  Drenching  a  Cow,  Bandaging  and  Stitching  Wounds,  Castrat- 
ing Calves  and  Bulls,  Diseases. 

HORSE  PRODUCTION 101-138 

Market  Classes  and  Sub-Classes  of  Horses,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses, 
Score  Card  for  Draft  Horses,  Score  Card  for  Light  Horses,  Mule  Pro- 
duction, Classification  of  Mules,  How  to  Tell  the  Age  of  a  Horse, 
Teeth  at  Different  Ages,  Shoeing  and  Care  of  the  Feet,  Throwing  or 
Casting  a  Horse,  Care  of  the  Sick  and  Injured,  Castration,  How  to 
Locate  Lameness,  Blemishes  Possible  on  a  Horse. 

DISEASES   OF  HORSES ; 139-181 

General  Symptoms,  Treatment  for  Diseases  of  Horses. 

SHEEP   PRODUCTION 183-199 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep,  Score  Card  for  Mutton  Sheep,  etc. 

DISEASES  OF  SHEEP 200-212 

General  Symptoms,  Treatment  of  Diseases  of  Sheep. 

SWINE  PRODUCTION 213-233 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Hogs,  Score  Card  for  Hogs  of  Lard  Type,  Score 
Card  for  Hogs  of  Bacon  Type,  Market  Classes  of  Hogs. 

DISEASES  OF  SWINE „....-....  234-272 

General  Symptoms,  Treatment  for  Diseases  of  Hogs. 


LIVE  STOCK  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  Importance  of  Farm  Animals. — The  extent  to  which  farm  animals 
furnish  food,  clothing  and  labor,  is  perhaps  sufficient  to  emphasize  their  impor- 
tance. A  long  list  of  useful  articles  manufactured  from  their  hides,  hair,  bone 
and  other  parts  of  the  animal  body  give  further  evidence  of  how  farm  animals 
contribute  to  the  welfare  of  the  human  race.  Moreover,  live  stock  production 
is  the  basis  of  most  practical  and  profitable  agriculture.  Farmers  have  much  to 
encourage  them  in  the  production  of  live  stock  where  they  understand  its  care 
and  management.  Well  organized  herds  and  flocks  provide: 

A  profitable  cash  income  from  animals  and  animal  products. 
A  home  market  and  profitable,  prices  for  farm  crops. 
A  means  of  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  land  and  a  maximum  produc- 
tion of  crops. 

Cash  returns  for  farm  residues  and  by-products  that  have  no  general 

market  value. 

A  utilization  of  farm  labor  in  a  manner  to  make  it  profitable  throughout 

the  year. 

How  to  Make  Live  Stock  Pay. — There  is  evidence  of  serious  misfortune  or 
mismanagement  when  live  stock  on  the  farm  does  not  pay.  Misfortune  and 
mismanagement  resulting  in  serious  losses  are  largely  overcome  and  success  in 
making  live  stock  pay  is  assured  by  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  types  and  breeds 
of  animals  most  useful  in  serving  their  purpose,  and  practicing  a  system  of  se- 
lection, breeding  and  management  that  has  proved  most  successful  in  the  pro- 
duction of  farm  animals.  It  pays  to  read  the  best  live  stock  books  and  literature, 
to  make  the  acquaintance  of  successful  stockmen  and  learn  of  their  methods  of 
production,  to  practice  consistently  and  persistently  the  best  methods  of  breeding 
and  feeding  and  to  raise  the  standard  of  one's  herds  and  flocks  by  selecting  and 
keeping  at  all  times  the  best  animals  one  can  secure. 

The  Necessity  for  Types  and  Breeds. — Differences  in  size,  character  of 
body  and  the  purposes  which  animals  best  serve,  make  the  differences  in  types 
and  breeds.  The  type  of  an  animal  indicates  its  utility  and  is  important  for  this 
reason.  There  may  be  several  breeds  representing  a  given  type.  Breed  is  im- 
portant in  that  it  represents  a  class  of  animals  that  reproduce  themselves  and 
their  good  qualities  with  a  greater  degree  of  likeness  and  certainty  than  do  ani- 
mals of  no  particular  breed. 

The  types  and  breeds  of  animals  maintained  on  a  given  farm  are  a  reflection 
of  the  mind  and  the  management  of  the  farmer  responsible  for  their  production. 
Improved  breeds  of  farm  animals  are  the  result  of  many  generations  of  con- 
stant effort  on  the  part  of  men  who  have  had  in  mind  types  of  animals  best 
adapted  for  serving  a  given  purpose.  The  true  stockman  endeavors  to  select 
and  breed  animals  in  a  manner  to  preserve  types  that  have  been  established. 
Mismanagement  resulting  in  mixing  breeds,  and  failure  to  properly  feed  and  care 

l 


2  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


for  animals,  lowers  the  standard  of  live  stock  production  and  makes  results  un- 
certain and  disappointing.  Natural  laws  that  govern  and  control  the  reproduc- 
tion of  plant  and  animal  life  and  which  generally  group  plants  and  animals  un- 
der district  varieties,  emphasizes  the  importance  of  selecting  recognized  types 
and  breeds  of  farm  animals. 

The  Best  Breed  to  Select. — Many  factors  enter  into  the  selection  of  a 
breed.  Personal  preference  or  no  preference  whatever  accounts  for  the  charac- 
ter of  many  farm  animals.  The  farm  organization,  its  adaptability  for  producing 
a  given  class  of  farm  and  animal  products,  its  relationship  to  markets  and  local 
manufacturing  plants  like  creameries,  cheese  factories,  condenseries  and  abba- 
toirs,  should  be  leading  factors  in  deciding  upon  a  breed.  There  are  many  ad- 
vantages in  buying  and  selling  and  in  breeding  and  managing  animals  where 
a  community  agrees  upon  a  given  breed  and  co-operates  in  an  effort  to  promote 
the  breed.  A  lifetime  is  too  short  to  accomplish  all  that  one  would  like  to  do  in 
developing  a  given  breed.  Therefore,  one's  choice  in  the  matter  of  selecting  and 
breeding  should  be  carefully  considered.  A  man  is  most  fortunate  when  he  can 
chose  the  breed  that  his  father,  and  his  grandfather  developed  and  adapted  to  a 
given  farm. 

Definitions  Applying  to  Animal  Breeding. — Breeding  as  it  applies  to  live 
stock  is  the  art  of  reproducing  and  improving  farm  animals.  Its  prime  object 
is  the  improvement  of  animals  for  meat,  milk,  wool  and  labor. 

Promiscuous  Breeding. — Mating  animals  without  reference  to  type,  breed 
or  individuality,  most  often  results  in  undesirable  farm  animals  and  should  be 
discouraged. 

Cross-Breeding. — This  system  of  breeding  refers  to  mating  animals  of 
two  distinct  breeds.  It  offers  the  advantage  of  increasing  the  size,  vigor  and  pro- 
ductive quality  of  animals.  These  good  results,  however,  are  confined  to  only 
the  first  generation  of  animals.  Cross-bred  animals  are  not  satisfactory  for 
breeding  purposes  except  where  one  desires  to  establish  new  breeds  and  types. 
The  practice,  therefore,  tends  to  destroy  the  opportunity  for  preserving  estab- 
lished breed  type  and  character  and  the  work  of  generations  of  time  consumed 
in  the  development  and  perfection  of  given  breeds. 

Natural  Breeding. — Mating  animals  not  related  but  corresponding  in  type 
and  breed,  constitutes  natural  breeding.  Where  one  has  opportunity  to  use  the 
best  of  sires  this  system  of  breeding  is  capable  of  producing  very  satisfactory 
results  and  may  be  regarded  safer  than  breeding  animals  more  or  less  closely 
related.  It  is  the  approved  system  of  breeding  most  generally  employed. 

Line  Breeding. — Mating  animals  within  a  given  family,  related  to  the 
extent  of  twenty-five  percent  and  less  than  fifty  percent  of  the  same  blood, 
is  termed  "line  breeding."  It  is  practically  safe  to  practice  line  breeding 
where  one  does  not  allow  the  relationship  to  become  too  close  and  is  careful 
to  maintain  definite  standards  relating  to  size  and  vigor.  Line  breeding  tends 
to  insure  more  uniform  results  than  natural  breeding. 

Inbreeding. — Mating  animals  that  are  related  to  the  extent  of  having  50 
percent  or  more  of  the  same  blood,  is  inbreeding.  When  practiced  by  men 
who  understand  the  nature  and  results  of  such  breeding,  it  is  a  safe  practice. 


LIVE  STOCK  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT       3 

There  are  many  inbred  animals  which  have  become  much  noted  for  their  excel- 
lence in  quality,  prepotency  and  production.  There  are  also  many  sad  disappoint- 
ments that  have  been  experienced.  Over-refined,  under  size,  non-breeding, 
malformed  and  idiotic  animals  are  evil  results  which  may  accompany  too  close 
breeding.  Inbreeding  tends  to  intensify  both  good  and  bad  characters  and  it 
is  a  safe  rule  never  to  inbreed  when  defects  and  characters  that  are  not  desirable 
appear  in  the  makeup  of  the  animals  to  be  mated.  One  must  be  prepared  to 
rigidly  select  or  cull  from  the  herd  the  undesirable  types  that  follow  this  practice. 

Out-Crossing. — Inbreeding  and  line  breeding  confine  animals  to  one 
family  or  strain.  When  there  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  a  herd  thus  developed 
to  show  indications  of  weakness,  it  is  well  to  select  from  some  other  strain  or 
family  of  the  same  breed,  a  sire  that  will  overcome  the  weakness  and  instill  into 
the  family  the  character  that  is  lacking.  Such  a  practice  is  termed  "out-crossing." 

Grade  and  High  Grade  Animals. — A  grade  animal  is  usually  by  a  pure 
bred  sire  and  out  of  a  grade  or  native  female.  It,  therefore,  has  50  or  more  per- 
cent of  the  blood  of  a  pure  bred  class  of  animals.  A  high  grade  animal  carries 
a  relatively  high  percent  of  the  blood  of  a  pure  bred.  Grade  animals  are  not 
eligible  to  registry  in  the  herd  books  that  record  the  names  of  pure  bred  animals. 

Pure  Bred  Animals. — The  term  "pure  bred"  applies  to  animals  having 
one  hundred  percent  of  the  blood  of  a  distinct  breed.  They  are  usually  from 
registered  animals  and  are  eligible  to  registration  in  the  herd  books  of  the 
Association  that  promotes  and  preserves  the  records  of  animals  of  the  breed 
in  question. 

Cross-Bred  Animals. — Technically  a  cross-bred  animal  is  the  progeny  re- 
sulting from  the  mating  of  pure  bred  animals  of  two  distinct  breeds.  The  type 
may  be  the  same  or  different,  for  example,  two  breeds  of  cattle  like  the  Short- 
horn and  Aberdeen  Angus,  or  breeds  representing  beef  and  dairy  cattle  like  the 
Shorthorn  and  Guernsey. 

Mongrel  and  Scrub  Animals. — Where  animals  have  been  promiscuously 
produced  by  more  or  less  crossing  or  inbreeding  and  have  been  poorly  managed 
or  neglected,  they  are  commonly  known  and  termed  mongrels  or  scrubs.  They 
may  represent  a  survival  of  the  fittest,  but  at  best  are  unprofitable  and  a  poor 
foundation  upon  which  to  build  for  anything  better.  Time  and  money  will  be 
gained  by  selling  such  animals  and  purchasing  grades  or  pure  breds  to  serve  as  a 
foundation  for  breeding. 

Factors  that  Insure  Success  in  Animal  Breeding. — Select  the  best  founda- 
tion animals  it  is  possible  to  secure,  keeping  in  mind  animals  of  the  most  useful 
and  desirable  types. 

Use  only  sires  of  pure  breeding  and  as  far  as  possible  sires  old  enough  to 
have  proved  their  prepotency. 

Feed  and  manage  the  breeding  stock  to  keep  them  in  a  healthy  and  thrifty 
condition. 

Avoid  unsanitary  conditions  and  all  possibility  of  introducing  contagious 
and  infectious  diseases. 

Keep  young  animals  growing  from  birth  to  maturity. 


4  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Continue  a  line  of  breeding  from  year  to  year  that  leads  to  a  definite  stand- 
ard. 

Bear  in  mind  that  the  best  results  in  breeding  animals  require  several  years 
of  faithful  work. 

Endeavor  to  gradually  grow  into  something  better  from  year  to  year  until 
that  which  is  most  excellent  is  secured. 

Breeders  of  Live  Stock  Classified. — Men  engaged  in  the  breeding  of  im- 
proved live  stock  do  not  all  rank  alike.  The  following  classification  may  be 
made: 

Farmers  who  engage  in  general  farming  and  maintain  and  breed  grade  or 
high  grade  animals  which  best  serve  the  general  market  demands. 

Farmers  and  professional  stockmen  who  make  a  specialty  of  breeding  pure 
bred  animals  that  serve  primarily  for  breeding  purposes. 

One's  experience,  knowledge  and  opportunity  for  successfully  engaging  in 
the  breeding  of  pure  bred  live  stock  are  factors  that  should  determine  in  which 
class  he  should  enter  as  a  breeder  of  live  stock. 

Advantages  in  Breeding  Grade  Animals. — The  breeding  of  grade  and 
high  grade  animals  offers  the  following  advantages : 

One  gains  a  knowledge  and  an  experience  necessary  in  successfully 
breeding  any  class  of  farm  animals  without  incurring  the  danger  of  serious 
financial  loss. 

It  costs  much  less  to  start  and  to  continue  the  business. 

One  is  not  obliged  to  spend  time  and  money  to  find  special  markets  for 
animals. 

Excellent  individual  animals  and  uniform  herds  may  be  produced. 

Advantages  in  Breeding  Pure  Bred  Animals. — Excellent  pure  bred 
animals  tend  to  reproduce  themselves  and  their  good  qualities  with  a  greater 
degree  of  certainty  than  do  grade  animals. 

Prices  paid  for  pure  breds  that  serve  for  breeding  purposes  are  much 
higher  than  prices  paid  for  grades. 

There  is  a  satisfaction  in  producing  the  best  and  also  in  attaining  a 
reputation  as  a  stockman  and  in  doing  the  most  for  the  improvement  of  live 
stock  that  is  worth  while. 

Wherein  Breeding  Pure  Bred  Live  Stock  is  More  Expensive. — There  is 
considerable  more  expense  in  breeding  pure  bred  live  stock  that  must  be 
anticipated  by  one  who  chooses  to  engage  in  breeding  such  animals.  One 
should  also  take  this  fact  into  consideration  in  buying  pure  bred  sires  and 
other  pure  bred  foundation  stock.  The  items  incurring  greater  expense  are 
as  follows : 

The  purchase  price  of  breeding  stock. 

The  cost  of  breeding  and  maintaining  animals  in  a  manner  to  meet  the 
market  demands. 

The  cost  of  registering  animals  and  transferring  their  ownership  in  the 
herd  books  of  the  association  representing  their  breed. 

The  cost  of  advertising  and  marketing  surplus  stock  sold  for  breeding 
purposes. 


LIVE  STOCK  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT       5 

The  expenses  incident  to  keeping  in  touch  with  affairs  and  making  the 
acquaintance  of  men  prominent  in  directing  the  welfare  of  the  breed  in  ques- 
tion. 

Knowledge  and  Skill  Required  to  Breed  Pure  Bred  Live  Stock. — The 
breeder  of  pure  bred  live  stock  must  seek  to  acquire  more  knowledge  and 
skill  than  is  required  by  the  farmer  who  breeds  only  grade  live  stock.  Such 
knowledge  and  skill  pertains  to  the  following: 

Laws  and  fundamental  principles  of  breeding,  feeding  and  management 
that  tend  to  insure  the  greatest  success. 

The  characteristics,  individuality  and  lines  of  breeding  that  produce  the 
best  results.  * 

The  rules  and  regulations  pertaining  to  registration,  transportation  and 
management  of  animals  sold  for  breeding  purposes. 

The  true  value  of  animals  and  prices  commonly  paid  for  animals  of  a 
given  line  of  breeding  and  individuality  in  order  that  prices  may  be  fair  both 
to  the  seller  and  buyer. 

The  value  and  means  of  advertising  and  doing  business  in  a  manner  to 
command  the  respect  and  to  secure  the  orders  of  men  seeking  animals  for 
breeding  purposes. 

The  Live  Stock  Breeder's  Calling. — The  live  stock  breeder,  whether  en- 
gaged in  the  production  of  grade  or  pure  bred  animals,  should  consider  his 
occupation  as  one  of  high  and  dignified  calling.  He  is  in  closest  touch  with 
the  work  of  Nature  and  cannot  hope  to  succeed  without  being  true  to  her 
laws  and  principles  and  to  himself  and  his  fellow  beings.  The  breeding  and 
selling  of  pure  bred,  registered  live  stock  has  been  built  and  rests  solely  on 
honor.  Men  who  do  not  have  faith  in  their  fellowmen  cannot  regard  pure 
breds  more  valuable  than  grades  of  equal  individuality.  Pure  bred  animals 
of  excellent  individuality  and  of  families  excelling  in  type  and  production  and 
preserved  and  reproduced  by  men  of  honor,  will  always  be  the  most  reliable 
for  breeding  purposes  and  command  the  highest  prices  paid  for  any  class  of 
animals. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION 

The  production  and  maintenance  of  cattle  play  an  important  part  in 
Agriculture.  There  are  several  lines 'of  cattle  production  that  offer  good 
opportunities  for'utilizing  land  and  feed  in  a  manner  to  insure  profitable  in- 
comes and  to  keep  up  soil  fertility.  These  lines  of  production  may  be  enu- 
merated as  follows : 


1 


Beef  (Shorthorn). 


Dairy   (Holstein). 
Distinct  Types  of  Cattle. 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Beef   (Shorthorn). 
\ 


Dairy   (Holstein). 


Beef   (Shorthorn). 

Distinct  Types  of  Cattle. 


Dairy  (Guernsey). 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  9 

Breeding  and  maintaining  cattle  primarily  for  milk  production. 

Breeding  and  growing  cattle  for  stockers  and  feeders. 

Grazing  cattle  on  ranches  of  the  West  or  large  areas  of  farm  land. 

Fattening  cattle  in  feed  lots  where  corn  and  fattening  feeds  are  available 
in  sufficiently  large  quantities  at  reasonable  prices. 

Producing  pure  bred  cattle  to  serve  primarily  for  breeding  purposes. 

Types  of  Cattle. — There  are  two  distinct  types  of  improved  cattle,  namely 
dairy  and  beef.  Cattle  of  dairy  type  excel  in  the  production  of  milk  and 
utilize  feed  very  largely  for  milk  production.  Good  dairy  cows  will  produce 
milk  at  the  expense  of  body  weight  which  weight  they  regain  only  when  the 
milk  flow  is  reduced  and  they  are  dried  off.  They  are,  therefore,  comparatively 
thin  and  light  in  form. 

Cattle  of  the  beef  type  excel  in  the  production  of  beef  and  in  many  in- 
stances do  not  give  milk  enough  to  pay  the  cost  of  milking  them.  In  such 
instances  the  calves  are  allowed  to  run  with  their  mothers  until  they  are 
naturally  weaned.  Beef  cattle  consume  large  quantities  of  feed  and  utilize 
it  for  beef  rather  than  for  the  production  of  milk. 


General  Purpose  Cow   (Red  Polled). 

General  Purpose  Type. — Many  cattle  do  not  conform  distinctly  to  either 
of  the  two  respective  types  of  highly  specialized  cattle  and  for  this  reason 
and  the  fact  that  they  serve  in  producing  a  fair  amount  of  both  milk  and 
beef,  have  been  termed  cattle  of  general,  or  dual-purpose  type.  Theoretically, 
an  animal  might  be  expected  to  excel  in  both  beef  and  milk  and  thus  be  most 
ideal.  In  practice,  however,  general  purpose  cattle  excel  in  the  product  that 
is  given  most  emphasis.  It  is  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  animals  could 
excel  for  a  given  number  of  generations  in  milk  production  and  at  the  same 
time  retain  excellent  beef  forms.  Beef  cattle  require  liberal  quantities  of  feed 
to  maintain  the  amount  of  beef  they  are  capable  of  producing  and  their  milk 
production  is  cut  short  to  the  extent  that  they  utilize  feed  for  beef  production. 


10 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


It  should  be  understood  that  any  specific  type  of  animal  is  determined  by  th 
disposition  or  temperament  that  governs  the  use  it  makes  of  the  feed  eatei 
The  beef  and  the  dairy  animal  when  put  side  by  side  are  both  capable  c 
consuming  equivalent  amounts  of  feed,  granting  that  they  have  equal  feedin 
capacities,  but  under  normal  conditions  there  will  be  a  marked  difference  i 
the  amount  of  milk  and  beef  produced  by  them  in  a  given  year.  The  one  wi 
excel  in  beef  production  and  the  other  in  the  production  of  milk. 

In  aiming  to  keep  cattle  of  general  purpose  type,  it  is  regarded  best  1 
select  large,  roomy  cattle  which  have  natural  tendencies  to  produce  mil 
in  liberal  quantities  during  the  early  stages  of  their  lactation  and  which  ha-\ 
a  covering  and  quality  of  flesh  indicating  that  they  will  produce  offsprir 
reasonably  satisfactory  for  beef.  As  soon  as  one  feels  the  necessity  of  en 
phasizing  beef  or  dairy  quality  in  his  cattle,  it  will  be  best  for  him  to  choo: 
a  specialized  type  and  breed  best  adapted  for  serving  his  purpose. 

Breeds  of  Cattle. — The  development  of  the  respective  breeds  of  catt 
dates  back  to  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  began  for  the  mo 
part  in  the  British  Isles.  Limited  space  does  not  permit  herewith  of  mo: 
than  a  tabulated  statement  of  the  various  breeds  and  their  distinguishir 
characteristics.  Material  giving  a  more  complete  description  and  account 
the  breeds  will  be  interesting  and  helpful.  Secretaries  of  the  National  Bre( 
Associations  in  most  instances  are  in  a  position  to  furnish  material  pertainir 
to  the  breed  represented.  However  the  above  is  sufficient  for  all  practic 

purposes. 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


Type 

Breed 

Nativity 

Weight 

Average 
per  cent 
Fat  in  Milk 

Color  and  Characteristics 

Ayrshire 

Scotland, 
County  of 
Ayr 

1500-1700 
1000-1100 

3.84    . 

White  with  red,  black  or  mahoga 
spots.  Red  may  predomina 
Horns  long,  inclining  upward  a 
outward.  Body  well  rounded  a 
rather  heavy  In  hind  quarte 
Udder  well  attached  and  uniforn 
symmetrical.  Teats  someCin 
short.  A  hardy,  rustling  breed. 

Dairy  of  the  five 
more  prominent 
Breeds  

Brown 

Swiss 

Switzerland 

1600-1900 
1200-1400 

3.78 

Dark  to  light  brown  or  gray.  Ligh 
color  about  nose  along  back  a 
on  udder.  A  hardy  breed  w 
comparatively  heavy  bone  and  hit 
Some  strains  beefy,  due  to  di 
purpose  qualities  encouraged  pr 
to  1907. 

Guernsey 

Guernsey, 
Island  of 
English 
Channel 
Group 

1500-1700 
1000-1100 

4.77 

Yellow  or  reddish  fawn  with  wh 
markings.  Utility  more  th 
showy  and  type  given  spec 
attention  in  development  of  brec 
Milk  of  rich  and  yellow  color. 

Holstein- 
Friesian 

Holland- 
Province  of 
Friesland 

1900-2000 
1200-1500 

3.28 

Black  and  white.  Either  color  m 
predominate.  Largest  of  da: 
breeds,  when  well  raised.  Exc 
in  quantity  of  milk.  Capacity  1 
large  consumption  of  rougha 
makes  milk  production  economic 
where  pasture  is  abundant. 

CATTLE  PRODUCTION 
TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  (Continued.) 


11 


Type 

Breed 

Nativity 

Weight 

Average 
per  cer.t 
Fat  in  Milk 

Color  and  Characteristics 

Dairy  of  t  h  e  five 
more  prominent 
Breeds  

Jersey 

Jersey 
Island  of 

KiiKlish 
Channel 
Group 

1200-1500 
700-1000 

4.98 

Fawn  of  light  to  dark  shade.  White 
spots  sometime!  present.  Smallest 
of  five  breeds  most  commonly  found 
on  dairy  farms  American  bred 
cattle  larger  than  imported  cattle 
Cattle  excel  in  quality  and  in  the 
economical  productioi  of  rich  milk 
Some  families  polled. 

V 

Dairy  of  the  less 
prominent 
Breeds  

Dutch  Belted 

Holland 

1200-1600 

3.40 

Black  with  white  band  about  the 
body.  Attention  to  perfecting  the 
color  marking  in  the  early  history  of 
the  breed  resulted  in  neglect  of 
other  qualities  that  were  more  im- 
portant to  milk  production. 

French 
Canadian 

Canada, 
Province  of 
Quebec 

800-1000 
700-800 

3.99 

Solid  black  or  black  with  shade  of 
yellow  fawn,  brindle  or  brown  with 
black  points.  A  very  hardy  breed 
well  adapted  to  scant  and  hilly 
pastures. 

Kerry 

Ireland, 
Kerry 
Mountains 

SOO-1000 
500-600 

4.36 

Black,  sometimes  red.  The  "true 
Kerry"  is  known  in  Ireland  as  the 
"poor  man's  cow"  and  excels  in 
milk  production.  The  Dexter 
Kerry  is  more  blocky  and  beefy,  and 
may  be  black,  red  or  roan. 

Beef. 

Aberdeen- 
Angus 

Scotland, 
County  of 
Aberdeen 

2200-2800 
1400-1800 

4.99 

Black.jnrareinstancesred.  Some  white 
on  udder  or  navel,  not  objectionable. 
Head  polled  .  Very  smooth  and  even- 
ly fleshed  body  Popular  in  the  feed 
lot  and  on  the  market  as  beef  cattle. 

Galloway 

Scotland, 
Counties  of 
Wegton  and 
Kirkcud- 
bright 

1800-1900 
1200-1300 

High 

Black.  A  reddish  or  brownish  tinge 
sometimes  present.  Hair  long  and 
shaggy,  making  hides  very  popular 
for  robes  and  coats.  Head  polled. 
Breed  very  hardy. 

Hereford 

England, 
County  of 
Hereford 

2200-2800 
1400-1800 

Good 

Red,  with  white  face,  switch  and 
underline.  Horns,  long  and  spread- 
ing. Hair  more  or  less  curly. 
Breed  very  popular  on  the  range  and 
for  grazing  purposes.  Excellent  for 
beef  production. 

Beef. 

Shorthorn 

England, 
Counties  of 
York, 
Durham  and 
North- 
umberland 

1800-2200 
1200-1600 

3.73 

Red,  roan,  white,  red  and  white,  a 
most  popular  and  cosmopolitan 
breed,  embracing  several  strains  of 
beef  cattle  and  some  strains  that 
possess  deep  milking  qualities.  Be- 
cause of  the  crossing  of  the  various 
strains,  considerable  variation  in 
type  is  noticeable  in  herds  where 
careful  selection  has  been  neglected. 

Polled 
Durham 

Same  as  Shorthorn,  except  for  the 
polled  condition  of  the  head  —  are 
practically  beef  Shorthorns. 

General  Purpose.  . 

Devon 

England, 
Counties  of 
Devon  and 

Somerset 

1500-2100 
1300-1500 

4.90' 

Bright  red.  White  not  permissible 
except  on  udder  of  cow  or  on  under- 
line of  body.  Three  hundred  Ibs. 
butter  produced  in  a  year  by  mature 
cows.  Small  boned,  moderate  offal, 
and  fine  grain  of  meat  make  car- 
casses popular  with  butchers. 

Red  Polled 

England, 
Counties  of 
Norfolk  and 
Suffolk 

1SOO-2200 
1100-1600 

3.73 

Red  with  white  switch.  White  on 
underside  of  body  permissible. 
Certain  families  of  breed  produce 
milk  and  butter  fat  in  quantities 
that  compare  favorably  with  dairy 
breeds.  Other  strains  excel  in  beef 
production  to  the  extent  that  milK- 
ing  qualities  are  impaired. 

Dairy 
Shorthorn 

Same  as  for 
Shorthorns 

1800-2000 
1100-1400 

)airy  Shorthorns  are   the   result   of 
strains   of   Shorthorn    cattle    that 
have  been  developed  more  especial- 
ly for  milk  production  as  well  as  a 
moderate  beef  production. 

12 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


WILLIAM  DEMPSTER  HOARD 
Fort  Atkinson,  Wis. 

The  World's  Foremost  Dairy  Exponent,  Editor  of  Hoard's  Dairyman, 
Practical  Dairy  Farmer,  Ex-Governor  of  Wisconsin. 

A  man  of  keen  and  farsighted  intellect,  who  has  expounded  and  demo 
strated  the  value  of  the  dairy  cow  as  a  profitable  farm  animal  and  an  economic 
producer  of  human  food. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  13 

DAIRY  CATTLE  PRODUCTION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

Dairying  as  an  Industry. — Dairy  cattle  and  milk  production  is  an  in- 
dustry in  itself.  The  importance  of  milk  and  its  by-products  in  supplying  food 
for  the  human  race  has  resulted  in  much  attention  being  given  throughout  the 
entire  country  to  breeding  and  maintaining  herds  of  dairy  cattle.  The  production 
and  distribution  of  dairy  products,  engages  the  attention  of  many  organizations, 
both  of  a  local  and  a  national  character.  Under  suitable  conditions  dairying, 
though  accompanied  by  considerable  expense  and  labor,  is  highly  profitable.  The 
dairy  cow  utilizes  farm  grown  crops  for  milk  production  economically,  and 
gives  the  farmer  a  return  at  regular  and  frequent  intervals.  Dairy  farming 
requires,  however,  an  intelligent  consideration  of  many  details  pertaining  to  the 
selection,  care  and  management  of  the  herd  and  providing  conditions  that  insure 
milk  products  being  handled  in  a  manner  to  conform  with  standards  that  reg- 
ulate it  as  a  food  product.  The  dairy  cow  has  no  competitor  in  producing 
milk  in  large  quantities  for  commercial  purposes,  and  with  the  increase  in 
population  there  is  every  encouragement  for  the  farmer  who  intelligently  en- 
gages in  the  business  of  dairying. 

Cows  of  Dairy  Type  and  Breeds  Essential  for  Success. — Choosing  cows 
of  dairy  breed  and  type  is  fundamental  to  successful  dairying.  The  development 
of  dairy  breeds  has  been  the  result  of  high  ideals  and  systematic  effort  on  the 
part  of  many  generations  of  dairy  men  who  realize  the  possibilities  in  a  type  of 
cattle  especially  adapted  for  large  and  economical  productions  of  milk  and  butter 
fat.  Cattle  that  are  true  representatives  of  the  breeds  generally  recognized  as 
most  suitable  for  dairy  purposes,  are  a  very  distinct  type  from  the  ordinary  native 
cattle  and  cattle  of  the  improved  beef  type.  The  distinct  breeds  of  dairy  cattle 
tend  to  reproduce  themselves  from  generation  to  generation  with  a  marked 
degree  o-f  uniformity  and  in  this  fact  lies  the  importance  of  choosing  high  grade 
or  pure  bred  dairy  cattle  for  dairy  purposes. 

Characteristics  of  Dairy  Cattle. — Cattle  of  dairy  type  conform  to  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities  arid  characteristics  which  enable  them  to  produce  large  and 
economical  yields  of  milk : 

Medium  to  large  size  of  body  for  the  breed. 

Large  feed  capacity,  as  indicated  by  a  roomy  and  capacious  abdominal 
cavity,  a  large  mouth  and  sufficient  strength  of  body  to  consume  and  utilize 
a  large  quantity  of  feed. 

Dairy  temperament  or  a  disposition  to  convert  the  large  portion  of 
feed  consumed  into  milk  rather  than  body  flesh.  It  is  indicated  by  the  ab- 
sence of  surplus  flesh  and  a  comparatively  lean  and  refined  appearance  of 
the  entire  body. 

An  udder  that  is  large,  carried  well  up  to  the  body,  evenly  and  normally 
developed  in  all  quarters  and  of  good  quality. 

A  strong,  healthy  flow  of  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  giving  vigor, 
alertness  and  constitution.  These  characteristics  are  indicated  by  prominent 
facial,  udder  and  mammary  veins,  abundant  secretions  in  the  ears,  skin  of 
the  body  and  at  the  end  of  the  tail  and  a  coat  of  fine,  straight  hair. 


14 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Establishing  a  Dairy  Herd. — The  surplus  of  dairy  cattle  in  sectior 
where  dairying  is  the  principal  agricultural  industry,  offers  an  opportunity  fc 
the  purchase  of  cattle  suitable  for  establishing  and  maintaining  dairy  herd 
Time  is  too  short  to  depend  upon  any  other  means  of  laying  the  foundatioi 
In  many  instances  dairymen  depend  largely  upon  purchasing  cows  for  the  mair 
tenance  of  their  herds.  This  system  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  the  her 
filled  with  cows  of  mature  age  and  capable  of  producing  large  and  profitable  quar 


Dairy  type  and  characteristics  prominently  developed. 

tities  of  milk,  if  the  dairyman  is  an  expert  cow  buyer  and  can  locate  and  secur 
at  reasonable  prices  such  cows  as  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  purchase. 

Disadvantages  in  Buying  Cows. — Buying  cows  has  the  following  disac 
vantages : 

It  is  difficult  to  locate  and  induce  men  to  part  with  their  best  cows. 
To  secure  the  most  suitable  cows  one  must  pay  high  prices. 
The  expense  of  locating  and  transporting  purchased  cows  is  considei 
able. 

Subjecting  cows  to  new  and  strange  environment  has  a  tendency  t 
lower  their  productive  capacity  for  at  least  a  year. 

One   increases  the   danger  of   introducing  disease   into  his   herd   an 
every  precaution  has  to  be  exercised. 

Raise  Heifer  Calves  to  Maintain  the  Dairy  Herd. — The  best  way  to  mair 
tain  a  most  profitable  dairy  herd  is  to  raise  heifer  calves. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  15 

It  will  cost  less  to  raise  heifers  than  it  will  to  buy  cows. 

The  home  raised  heifers  generally  develop  into  better  and  more  profitable 
cows  than  most  of  those  which  can  be  purchased. 

Raising  the  dairy  herd  lessens  the  danger  from  contagious  abortion,  tu- 
berculosis and  other  infectious  diseases. 

A  comparatively  young  herd  may  be  kept  from  which  surplus  animals  can  be 
sold  at  profitable  prices. 

Good  dairy  calves  are  secured  from  the  best  cows  of  the  herd  mated  to 
good,  pure  bred  dairy  sires.  A  calf  must  be  well  born  as  well  as  properly  raised 
to  become  the  right  kind  of  a  dairy  cow.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon 
cows  of  good  type  and  production  capacity  and  sires  that  are  of  the  best  type 
and  breeding.  Knowing  the  best  cows  in  the  herd  and  being  particular  to  save 
and  raise  well  their  heifer  calves  is  the  best  way  to  get  a  profit-producing 
dairy  herd. 

Judging  Dairy  Cows. — The  most  successful  dairyman  is  a  good  judge  of 
dairy  cattle.  The  ability  to  select  profitable  from  unprofitable  cows  has  always 
been  a  strong  factor  in  successful  dairying  and  in  the  future  it  will  be  even  more 
necessary  for  men  who  engage  in  dairying  to  become  good  judges  of  dairy  cows. 

Although  the  consumption  of  milk  and  milk  products  is  constantly  increasing 
and  the  demand  for  bred-for-milk-and-butter-fat-production-cattle  growing,  the 
cost  of  feed  and  labor  and  the  price  of  land  is  also  rapidly  increasing  thus  making 
it  all  the  more  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  have  better  cows.  It  is  becoming  more 
and  more  important  for  him  to  know  the  family  history  of  the  cow,  whether  her 
ancestors  were  pure  bred  or  grade  and  whether  they  were  exceptional  milkers 
or  just  ordinary  or  even  poor  producers. 

The  farmer  who  is  a  good  judge  of  dairy  cattle  gains  many  advantages : 
Makes  fewer  mistakes  in  buying  cattle. 
Gets  better  prices  for  his  surplus  stock. 
Selects  and  builds  up  a  herd  of  cows  of  uniform  size,  type,  breed  and 

quality. 

Receives  a  higher  and  more  uniform  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat. 
Makes  greater  returns  over  and  above  the  cost  of  feed  and  care. 
Uses  better  sires  and  secures  better  calves. 

Has  better  success  in  feeding  and  showing  cattle  at  fairs  and  exposi- 
tions. 

Has  greater  satisfaction  and  pleasure  in  owning  and  managing  a  dairy 

herd. 

Profit-Producing  Cows. — A  ready  acquaintance  with  the  qualifications 
for  dairy  type  previously  named,  as  well  as  with  the  line  of  breeding  represented, 
will  aid  the  dairyman  in  selecting  profit-producing  cows.  It,  of  course,  should 
be  admitted  that  even  the  most  expert  judges  of  dairy  cattle  are  unable,  by  rely- 
ing solely  upon  the  appearance  to  the  eye  and  a  study  of  family  records,  to  fore- 
tell a  cow's  ability  to  produce  milk  and  butter  fat.  That,  in  the  end,  is  only 
told  by  the  use  of  the  milk  scales  and  the  Babcock  tester. 

Experiments  and  experience  have  shown  clearly  that  as  a  rule,  cows  which 
possess  certain  so-called  dairy  characteristics  are  more  economical  producers  of 


16 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


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CATTLE  PRODUCTION 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE. 


17 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE— A  dairy  cow  should  weigh  not  less  than  800  pounds,  have  large 
capacity  for  feed,  a  dairy  temperament,  well-developed  milk  organs,  fine  quality  and  perfect  health, 
and  be  capable  of  a  large  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Per- 
fect 
score 

Points  Deficient 

Points  Deficient 

Student's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Student's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

INDICATION  OF  CAPACITY  FOR  FEED— 
25  POINTS 
Face,  broad  between  the  eyes  and  long;  muzzle, 
clean  cut;  mouth,  large;  lips,  strong;  lower 
jaws  lean  and  sinewy  

5 

10 

5 
5 

3 

4 
2 

4 

3 
3 
4 
1 
1 

3 
3 

15 

4 

2 
3 
5 

7 

7 
1 

Body,  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from  front,  side 
and  top;  ribs,  long,  far  apart  and  well  sprung; 
breast  full  and  wide;  flanks,  deep  and  full  .... 
Back,  straight;    chine,  broad  and  open;  loin, 
broad  and  roomy   .  .  .-  

Hips  and  Thurls,  wide  apart  and  high  

INDICATION  OF  DAIRY  TEMPERAMENT— 
25  POINTS 
Head,  clean  cut  and  fine  in  contour;  eyes,  prom- 
inent full  and  bright                 

Neck,   thin,    long,  neatly    joined  to  head  and 
shoulders  and  free  from  throatiness  and  dewlap 
Brisket,  lean  and  light  

Shoulders,  lean,  sloping,  nicely  laid  up  to  body; 
points  prominent;  withers  sharp  

Back,  strong,  prominent  to  tail  head  and  open 
jointed                                                  .      

Hips,  prominent,  sharp  and  level  with  back  .... 
Thighs,  thin  and  incurving         

Tail  fine  and  tapering     .                

Legs  straight'  shank  fine                    

INDICATION  OF  WELL  DEVELOPED  MILK 
ORGANS—  25  POINTS 
Rump,  long,  wide  and  level;  pelvis,  roomy  .... 
Thighs  wide  apart*  twist,  high  and  open  

- 

Udder,  large,  pliable,  extending  well  forward  and 
high  up  behind;   quarters,  full,  symmetrical, 
evenly  joined  and  well  held  up  to  body 

Teats,  plumb,  good  size,  symmetrical  and  well 
placed                                    

\ 

INDICATIONS  OF  STRONG   CIRCULATORY 
SYSTEM,  HEALTH,  VIGOR  AND  MILK 
FLOW—  25  POINTS 

Eves  bright  und  placid                                        -  • 

Skin,  pliable;  hair,  fine  and  straight;  secretions 
abundant  in  ear,  on  body  and  at  end  of  tail  .  . 
Veins,  prominent  on  face  and  udder;  mammary 
veins,   large,   long,    crooked  and   branching; 

Total  

100 

(Score  card  used  at  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture.) 


18  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

milk  and  butter  fat  than  those  which  lack  these  features.  It  is  then  importa: 
for  the  farmer  who  keeps  cows  for  the  milk  and  butter  fat  they  yield,  to  see  th 
as  far  as  possible  his  animals  have  the  qualifications  for  dairy  type. 

Cows  usually  fail  in  the  production  of  milk  to  the  extent  that  they  h 
in  one  or  more  of  these  essential  features.  Each  part  of  the  body  bears  son 
relationship  to  one  or  more  of  these  essential  features  and  enabl< 
one  to  judge  of  its  prominence  and  desirability.  Where  one  is  able  to  consid< 
all  parts  of  the  body  and  judge  these  essential  features,  he  is  not  likely  to  e 
seriously  in  his  judgment. 

Cows  Need  Room  for  Digestive  Organs. — A  large  body,  more  especial! 
the  barrel,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  indicates  capacity.  The  boc 
of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  wedge  shaped  as  viewed  from  either  the  fron 
the  side  or  the  top  of  the  withers.  It  should  be  wider  at  the  hip  points  than  ; 
the  withers.  The  floor  of  the  chest  between  the  forelegs  should  also  be  wid< 
than  the  top  of  the  withers.  Again,  the  body  should  be  deeper  from  the  hi 
points  to  the  bottom  of  the  udder  than  it  is  at  the  fore  quarters. 

These  characteristics  of  the  body  have  led  to  the  term  "triple  wedge  shaj 
conformation,"  and  in  giving  consideration  to  the  digestive  capacity  of  the  co\ 
it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  the  base  ends  of  the  three  wedges  rather  tha 
the  sharp  ends  that  indicate  feed  capacity. 

Ribs  that  are  well  sprung  and  far  apart,  an  open  chine,  a  back  that  is  wic 
over  the  loins,  a  large  barrel,  hips  that  are  wide  apart,  rear  flanks  that  are  fu 
and  great  depth  from  hips  to  lower  line  of  the  flank,  all  combine  to  indicate 
large  digestive  capacity.  A  wide  forehead,  a  comparatively  long  face,  broa 
muzzle,  good  sized  mouth  and  strong,  sinewy  jaws,  are  also  considered  ind 
cations  of  a  large  digestive  capacity. 

The  tail  is  often  measured  in  judging  a  cow  and  to  meet  the  standard  requir* 
ment  should  reach  to,  or  below,  the  hocks  and  carry  a  good  switch.  This  rendei 
it  most  useful  in  brushing  flies  which  is  its  chief  purpose.  Excepting  as  the  loo: 
joints  of  the  tail  show  an  open  condition  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  back,  which 
desirable  in  the  dairy  cow,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  the  tail  would  indica' 
production. 

Dairy  Temperament  and  Milk  Production. — The  dairy  temperament  c 
dairy  disposition  of  a  cow  indicates  her  ability  to  convert  feed  into  milk  rath< 
than  into  flesh.  It  is  a  feature  which  the  dairy  breeds  have  acquired  through  tr. 
process  of  selection  and  breeding  for  milk  and  butter  fat  production.  It  vari( 
in  its  degree  of  strength,  even  among  pure  bred  animals,  and,  therefore,  needs  1 
be  carefully  considered  in  judging.  A  cow  that  is  a  large  and  economical  produc< 
of  milk  and  butter  fat  is  almost  certain  to  have  a  highly  developed  dairy  ten 
perament. 

Cows  excelling  in  dairy  temperament  show  the  following  characteristics : 

Features  about  the  head  and  face  are  clean  cut  in  outline  and  indicative  c 
fine  quality ;  eyes  are  prominent,  bright  and  active ;  neck  is  fine,  clean,  neatly  joins 
to  the  head,  not  too  full  at  the  throat  and  comparatively  long  and  thin ;  shoulde; 
are  oblique,  comparatively  bare  of  flesh  and  sharp  at  the  withers ;  the  backbon 
hips  and  pin  bones  are  prominent  and  sharp ;  ribs  are  more  or  less  prominent  ar 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  19 

open ;  thighs  are  thin  and  incurving,  sometimes  termed  "cat  hams ;"  and  bones 
in  all  parts  of  the  body  indicate  quality  rather  than  coarseness. 

Sharp  Wedges  Indicate  Temperament. — The  lean,  muscular  tissue  on  the 
outside  and  underneath  the  shoulder  blades  and  along  the  back  accounts  for 
the  comparatively  sharp  conditions  of  the  withers.  The  wedge-shaped  con- 
formation of  the  body  is  largely  due  to  the  absence  of  flesh  about  the  neck 
and  the  fore  quarters.  It  may  be  said,  therefore,  that  the  sharp  end  of  the  triple 
wedge-shaped  conformation  is  indicative  of  dairy  temperament. 

In  judging  quality  and  condition  of  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  body,  considera- 
tion should  be  allowed  for  the  size,  age  and  stage  of  lactation  of  the  animal.  It 
should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  bones  and  muscular  tissues  in  a  large  cow 
are  naturally  heavier  than  in  a  smaller  or  younger  animal.  Then,  too,  there  is  not 
the  natural  refinement  and  spareness  of  form  in  the  larger  breeds  that  there  is  in 
the  smaller  ones.  Marked  coarseness,  however,  in  any  animal  is  undesirable 
and  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  sluggish  disposition  that  in  the  case  of  the 
dairy  cow  prevents  her  from  "performing  at  the  pail"  satisfactorily.  Young 
heifers  with  their  first  calves  usually  carry  more  flesh  than  cows  of  mature 
form.  All  cows  that  are  properly  fed  usually  show  a  higher  condition  of 
flesh  development  toward  the  close  of  their  lactation  and  prior  to  freshening 
than  they  do  when  four  or  five  months  advanced  in  lactation.  This  should 
be  taken  into  consideration  in  judging  dairy  temperament. 

A  Well  Developed  Udder. — The  udder  is  the  milk  secreting  organ  and  its 
proper  development  is,  therefore,  essential.  Cows,  even  of  large  digestive  ca- 
pacity and  of  pure  dairy  breeding,  fail  to  make  satisfactory  productions  when 
they  have  poorly  developed  udders. 

The  udder  consists  of  two  large  glands  which  are  more  or  less  distinctly 
divided  to  correspond  with  each  of  the  four  teats.  The  duct  of  each  teat  enters 
a  small  cavity  termed  the  "milk  reservoir."  The  milk  reservoir  of  each  quarter  is 
more  or  less  surrounded  by  lobes  of  glands  held  in  position  and  closely  together  by 
connecting  tissue.  These  lobes  may  be  likened  to  thick  bunches  of  grapes  since 
each  lobe  has  several  divisions  called  lobules,  corresponding  to  the  grapes.  The 
lobules  are  made  of  small  divisions  called  "alveoli"  which  correspond  to  the 
seeds  of  grapes.  These  alveoli  consist  of  small  cells  surrounded  by  a  fine  net- 
work of  blood  vessels  and  nerves.  The  milk  is  secreted  by  these  cells. 

The  best  cows  of  all  breeds  have  comparatively  large  udders  with  equally  de- 
veloped quarters  extending  well  forward  underneath  the  body  and  a  good  dis- 
tance up  behind  and  between  the  thighs.  Swinging  or  pendulous  udders  result 
from  poor  attachment.  Irregularity  in  the  development  of  the  quarters  is  a 
criticism  to  be  offered  on  many  udders.  The  first  consideration,  however, 
should  be  size  and  quality.  The  gland  tissue  should  be  fine  and  plastic  rather 
than  fatty  or  coarse  and  hard. 

Good  Circulation  of  Blood  Important. — Only  when  there  is  a  thorough 
circulation  of  blood  and  all  parts  of  the  body  are  active  in  performing  their  respec- 
tive functions,  can  the  dairy  cow  be  expected  to  yield  a  large  flowof  milk.  When 
the  cow  is  sick,  or,  by  virtue  of  her  poor  individuality,  is  dull  and  sluggish,  there 


20 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


•o 

•o 


•o 
c 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  21 

is  an  inactivity  of  all  the  glands  of  the  body,  resulting  in  a  dry,  harsh  condition  of 
the  skin,  a  staring  coat  and  a  low  production  of  milk.  The  circulatory  system  in- 
cludes the  heart,  lungs,  arteries  and  veins.  These  organs,  respectively,  force, 
purify  and  carry  blood  to  and  from  all  parts  of  the  body. 

When  the  feed  which  the  cow  eats  is  digested  and  assimilated,  the  blood  car- 
ries it  to  all  parts  of  the  body  including  the  glands  of  the  udder  which  are  abun- 
dantly supplied  with  blood  vessels.  A  large  amount  of  blood  circulating  to  the 
udder  is  important  to  milk  secretion.  The  size  of  the  mammary  veins  and  the 
openings  or  "milk  wells"  at  the  ends  of  the  veins  on  the  underside  of  the  body 
are  the  best  indications  of  how  much  blood  passes  through  the  udder.  These 
veins,  often  called  "milk  veins,"  do  not  carry  milk,  as  some  believe,  but  rather 
carry  away  blood  from  the  udder.  Blood  sometimes  becomes  gorged  in  the 
veins  and  as  a  result  of  too  small  milk  wells,  the  size  of  the  veins  is  mis- 
judged. The  blood  passes  into  the  udder  through  arteries  located  deep  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  thighs. 

The  oily  condition  of  the  skin  and  the  oily  secretion  noted  in  the  ears  and 
at  the  end  of  the  tail,  are  indications  of  healthy  circulation  of  blood  to  all  parts  of 
body  and  a  general  activity  on  the  part  of  all  healthy  glands  of  the  body,  including 
those  of  the  udder.  The  large,  open  nostrils,  protruding  ample  air  passages 
to  the  lungs  for  purification  of  the  blood,  are  also  important. 

The  escutcheon,  which  is  outlined  by  a  mark  made  by  the  difference  in  direc- 
tion in  which  the  hair  runs  at  the  rear  of  the  thighs  above  the  udder,  was  thought 
by  a  French  student  of  the  dairy  cow,  Guenon,  to  be  associated  with  the  artery 
that  carries  blood  to  the  udder,  and,  therefore,  indicative  of  the  dairy  quality  of 
the  cow.  If  this  is  true,  it  should  be  given  as  much  importance  as  the  milk  veins. 
Guenon  also  regarded  the  peculiar  condition  of  spots  of  hair  noted  at  the  back 
side  of  the  udders  of  some  cows  and  termed  "the  thigh  ovals,"  as  an  important 
point  to  consider  in  connection  with  the  escutcheon.  A  lack  of  positive  knowledge, 
however,  concerning  the  relation  of  these  features  to  milk  production  does  not 
warrant  giving  them  as  much  consideration  as  is  given  to  the  milk  veins.  An 
escutcheon  which  is  wide  and  extends  high  up  on  the-  quarters,  is  considered 
most  desirable  and  usually  is  allowed  one  or  two  points  on  the  score  card  for 
dairy  breeds. 

No  Cow  is  Perfect. — No  cow  ever  existed  that  could  be  called  perfect  in  all 
respects  when  scored  by  a  critical  judge.  It  is  expected  that  every  animal  will 
be  more  or  less  deficient  and  the  eye  of  the  judge  should  be  quick  to  note  the  de- 
ficiency. In  buying  or  selling,  cows  having  deficiencies  which  tend  to  interfere 
seriously  with  their  being  economical  producers  should  be  discarded.  Deficien- 
cies in  digestive  capacity,  dairy  temperament,  milk  secretion  and  constitution 
should  be  given  first  consideration.  Deficiencies  in  symmetry  of  form,  breed 
characteristics  and  qualities  which  simply  please  the  eye  are  more  pardonable 
than  those  affecting  production. 

Some  Common'  Deficiencies  in  Cows. — A  deficiency  in  one  part  of  the 
body  is  usually  accompanied  by  deficiencies  in  other  parts  which  one  acquiring 
the  art  of  judging  should  soon  learn.  An  expert  is  able  to  judge  the  character  of 
an  animal  quite  accurately  by  taking  careful  note  of  the  head.  A  long,  narrow 


22  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

head,  for  example,  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  long,  narrow  body.  Good  length 
of  body  is  desirable  in  a  dairy  cow,  but  a  narrow  head  usually  has  small  eyes 
and  nostrils  and  a  small  mouth. 

A  small,  dull,  listless  eye  expresses  inability  to  do  satisfactory  work.  Small 
nostrils  indicate  contracted  lung  capacity  and  poor  constitution.  A  small  mouth 
usually  goes  with  small  digestive  capacity.  Marked  coarseness  of  bone,  hide  and 
hair  are  indicative  of  low  producing  capacity.  Heavy,  coarse  bones  over  the  tops 
of  the  shoulders,  at  the  hip  points,  pin  bones,  in  the  tail  and  legs,  are  marks  of 
poor  dairy  temperament. 

A  body  which  is  short  and  lacking  in  depth  due  to  close,  short  or  straight  ribs 
is  objectionable  because  it  detracts  from  the  capacity  for  feed.  The  legs  of  an 
animal  often  appear  long  on  account  of  a  small  body.  The  floor  of  the  chest 
of  a  cow  should  be  down  to  a  point  half  way  between  the  knee  and  elbow 
joints  of  the  forelegs. 

Deficiencies  which  are  common  to  the  hind  quarters  of  the  cow,  include  short- 
ness and  narrowness  of  rump,  a  drooping  rump,  narrowness  between  the  thurls 
and  pin  bones  and  thickly  fleshed  thighs.  Narrowness  in  the  hind  quarters,  es- 
pecially at  the  thurls  and  pin  bones,  is  accompanied  by  thighs  and  hind  legs 
which  are  too  close  together  to  permit  proper  development  of  the  udder.  A 
short  rump  and  thick,  heavy  thighs  are  objectionable  for  the  same  reason. 

There  is  practically  always  opportunity  for  criticising  an  udder  on  irregular- 
ity of  quarters,  handling  quality,  or  attachment.  An  udder  does  not  necessarily 
have  to  score  perfectly  to  be  capable  of  making  a  large  production  of  milk,  but 
it  is  desirable  to  have  it  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  cow  and  extend 
high  up  behind  and  well  forward  in  front,  with  the  quarters  equally  developed  and 
of  pliable  handling  quality.  Teats  which  are  too  short,  too  close  together  or 
irregularly  placed  and  inconvenient  for  milking,  are  often  noted. 

It  is  impossible  to  define  perfection  in  the  mammary  veins,  owing  to  the 
great  variation  in  their  development.  Small,  straight  veins  extending  only  a 
short  distance  forward  from  the  udder  and  having  very  few,  if  any,  branches,  are 
characteristic  of  the  veins  on  poor  cows.  A  network  of  fair  sized  veins  entering 
two  or  more  wells  on  each  side  of  the  body,  may  be  considered  equal  to  larger  and 
more  prominent  veins  without  branches  and  extensions. 

Constitution  and  Breeding  Essential. — A  strong  constitution  is  highly 
essential  for  the  reason  that  the  work  of  the  cow  is  strenuous  when  she  is  fed 
for  maximum  production.  A  cow  lacking  vitality  is  rarely  ever  a  good  feeder, 
and  consequently  is  unsatisfactory  for  milk  production.  The  cow  which  has 
a  constitution  to  enable  her  to  be  useful  for  a  period  of  10  or  12  years  in  mak- 
ing a  large  production  of  milk  and  regularly  bearing  offspring,  is  most  profit- 
able. 

The  breeding  or  ancestry  of  a  cow  largely  determines  her  characteristics, 
the  use  she  makes  of  her  feed  and  the  characteristics  of  her  calves.  The  dairy 
cow,  by  virtue  of  her  breeding,  has  the  characteristics  of  some  one  of  the 
recognized  dairy  breeds.  Dairy  breeding  insures  against  disappointment  when 
one  buys  or  raises  a  cow  for  milk  production. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  23 

Records  of  Production  a  Sure  Test. — The  cow  is  very  much  like  a  race 
horse  when  it  comes  to  judging  her  ability  to  perform.  Both  the  race  horse  and 
the  cow  must  be  judged  by  means  of  the  eye  assisted  by  the  record  of  perform- 
ance. The  milk  scale  and  the  Babcock  tester  assisted  by  judgment  of  the  eye, 
are  the  best  means  of  exercising  judgment  in  building  up  a  profitable  dairy  herd. 
Persistently  following-  this  means  of  judging  will  lead  to  the  establishment  of  a 
herd  which  is  both  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  capable  of  a  large  and  profitable  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  butter  fat.  Every  dairyman  can  afford  to  weigh  the  milk 
from  each  cow  at  each  milking  and  have  a  sample  of  the  milk  of  each  cow  tested 
once  a  month.  Results  accurate  enough  for  all  practical  purposes  may  thus  be 
secured. 

Milk  Scale  and  Tester  Increase  Profits. — If  judging  by  means  of  the  milk 
scale  and  tester  were  employed  on  every  dairy  farm,  feed  worth  millions  of  dol- 
lars, now  being  eaten  by  cows  which  do  not  pay  their  cost  of  keep,  would  be 
saved  annually  or  converted  into  milk  and  the  value  of  dairy  products  of  the 
state  would  be  greatly  increased. 

The  Advanced  Registry  system,  maintained  by  dairy  cattle  associations, 
records  the  milk  and  butter  fat  production  of  pure  bred  cows  officially  tested, 
and  renders  valuable  aid  in  judging  pure  bred  dairy  animals  on  the  basis  of  their 
ability  to  perform.  A  Cow  Testing  Association,  which  is  usually  a  group  of 
twenty-six  farmers  united  to  hire  a  man  to  weigh  and  test  the  milk  and  keep 
records  of  feed  costs  and  milk  production,  is  the  best  means  for  having  entire 
herds  of  cows  tested.  It  pays  to  belong  to  such  an  association.  Only  by  elim- 
inating the  poorer  cows  of  the  herd  can  a  high  herd  average  be  maintained.  A 
breeder  of  dairy  cattle  who  is  particularly  anxious  to  improve  the  quality  and 
excellence  of  the  herd  will  be  careful  to  judge  dairy  cattle  by  means  of  the  eye 
assisted  by  a  careful  consideration  of  milk  and  butter  fat  production.  Further- 
more, attention  should  be  given  to  the  pedigree  of  the  animals. 

A  Good  Family  Tends  to  Insure  Good  Cows. — The  pedigree  of  an  animal 
is  a  record  of  its  ancestors,  or  family.  The  ordinary  pedigree  usually  shows  the 
ancestors  for  five  or  six  generations.  The  value  of  the  pedigree  lies  in  the  funda- 
mental law  of  nature  that  "like  produces  like."  Where  ancestors  of  a  given  an- 
imal are  known  to  be  good,  one  can  judge  more  accurately  than  by  the  eye  alone. 
The  careful  dairyman,  who  is  anxious  to  build  up  the  best  possible  herd,  will 
find  it  profitable  to  study  carefully  the  individuality,  pedigree  and  performance 
of  his  cattle. 

FEED  AND  CARE  OF  THE  DAIRY  COW. 

Feeding  Dairy  Cows. — The  prime  object  in  dairying  is  to  convert  feed 
into  milk  and  money.  Healthy  cows  of  dairy  type  and  breeding-  and  an 
abundance  of  feed  suitable  for  dairy  rations,  are  two  equally  important  factors 
in  mil'k  production. 

When  prime  grass  pasture  in  abundance  is  available,  good  cows  produce 
milk  profitably  and  require  very  little  of  the  dairyman's  attention  to  the 


24  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

matter  of  feeding.  Many  cows  are  unprofitable,  however,  for  the  reason  that 
they  have  been  underfed,  improperly  managed,  or  allowed  to  live  an  easy, 
unproductive  life. 

The  following  fundamental  facts  are  important  to  consider  in  feeding 
dairy  cows: 

That  cows  are  machines  which  convert  feed  into  milk. 

That  each  cow  requires  a  maintenance  ration  whether  milking  or  dry, 
and  that  feed  additional  to  the  maintenance  ration  is  required  for  milk  pro- 
duction. 

That  feed  is  the  source  of  milk  and  that  cows  produce  milk  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  their  lactation  periods  in  proportion  to  the  kinds  and 
amounts  of  feed  supplied.  Cows  which  are  heavy  feeders  are  usually  large 
and  economical  producers* 

Practical  Suggestions  on  Feeding  and  Management. — Dairy  cows  require 
careful  attention  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  if  one  hopes  to  secure  the  most 
profitable  returns  from  them.  In  order  to  have  conditions  suitable  for  suc- 
cessfully feeding  and  keeping  up  a  full  flow  of  milk,  the  following  practical 
suggestions  are  offered : 

At  All  Times. — Treat  cows  gently  and  avoid  excitement.  The  treatment 
cows  receive  in  these  respects  has  a  marked  effect  on  their  production. 

Follow  a  regular  schedule  of  daily  work,  remembering  that  cows  are 
creatures  of  habit. 

Weigh  the  milk  of  each  cow  at  each  milking.  The  time  spent  doing  so 
is  well  paid  for  by  the  increased  interest  and  production  it  secures. 

Regulate  the  amount  of  feed  by  the  milk  record  and  the  individuality  of 
each  cow. 

Allow  free  access  to  salt  daily.  Granulated  or  lump  stock  sale"  is  most 
economical.  Three-fourths  of  an  ounce  per  1,000  Ibs.  of  live  weight  daily, 
plus  six-tenths  of  an  ounce  for  each  20  Ibs.  of  milk,  is  regarded  sufficient 
where  salt  must  be  mixed  with  the  feed. 

Give  cows  six  to  eight  weeks  rest  between  lactation  periods.  Feed  them 
during  the  resting  period  in  a  manner  to  increase  their  weight  and  strength 
if  they  are  in  a  rundown  condition. 

Discard  the  cow  which  has  had  a  fair  chance  and  failed  at  the  end  of  the 
year  to  pay  market  prices  for  all  the  feed  she  has  consumed.  One  cannot 
afford  to  feed  and  care  for  cows  that  do  not  pay  expenses. 

Belong  to  a  dairy  cattle  breeders'  association,  a  cow  testing  association 
and  other  organizations  that  will  help  to  keep  one  posted  and  in  touch  with 
the  best  up-to-date  methods  of  managing  a  dairy  herd. 

At  Calving  Time. — Have  cows  in  good  condition.  It  gives  reserve  energy 
for  milk  production. 

Keep  them  in  comfortable,  clean  box  stalls,  or  a  suitable  place  for  calving. 

Be  prepared  to  treat  an  attack  of  milk  fever,  which  may  occur  within  the 
first  forty-eight  hours  after  calving  in  the  case  of  cows  that  have  passed  their 
first  lactation  period. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  25 

Guard  against  cows  becoming  chilled  immediately  after  calving  by  blan- 
keting if  necessary. 

Do  not  milk  heavily  producing  cows  completely  dry  for  a  few  days  after 
freshening.  It  is  not  Nature's  practice  and  has  often  been  the  means  of 
producing  milk  fever. 

Feed  fresh  cows  sparingly  the  first  few  days  after  calving.  Water  with 
the  chill  removed,  a  few  quarts  of  scalded  bran  or  oats,  and  good  hay,  is  suf- 
ficient for  a  cow  the  first  day  or  two  after  calving.  The  condition  of  the 
cow  should  determine  the  manner  in  which  she  is  fed  following  the  first  two 
or  three  days.  It  ordinarily  requires  two  to  three  weeks  to  gradually  work 
cows  onto  full  feed.  For  best  results  one  should  be  cautious  not  to  over-feed 
or  allow  the  cow  at  any  time  to  get  off  feed  or  out  of  condition. 

Remove  the  afterbirth  if  necessary  inside  of  forty-eight  hours  after  calv- 
ing and  do  not  allow  it  to  be  eaten. 

In  Winter  Time. — Do  not  turn  cows  out  to  remain  and  suffer  in  cold  or 
stormy  weather.  It  prevents  the  right  use  of  feed  and  reduces  the  milk  pro- 
duction. Remember  that  cows  do  not  have  thick  coverings  of  flesh  like  beef 
cattle  to  protect  them  from  the  cold. 

Do  not  depend  on  frozen  pasture  for  feed  in  late  fall  and  the  early  winter. 
Cows  that  go  off  in  milk  production  at  this  season  are  difficult  to  make  profit-- 
able during  the  winter. 

Keep  cows  in  clean,  comfortable,  well  lighted  and  properly  ventilated 
stables.  Pure,  fresh  air  is  as  important  as  feed. 

Brush  cows  daily.  It  pays  better  than  grooming  horses,  which,  as  a  rule, 
is  not  neglected. 

Provide  water  two  or  three  times  daily  which  is  not  colder  than  that  from 
a  deep  well.  A  tank  heater  is  a  profitable  investment  if  necessary  to  warm 
water  for  cows. 

Feed  daily  three  pounds  of  corn  silage  or  roots  and  one  pound  of  clover 
or  alfalfa  hay  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  live  weight.  These  are  approximate  amounts 
and  serve  merely  as  a  guide  in  feeding  roughage  to  cows. 

Feed  cows  1  Ib.  of  grain  mixture  for^  every  3  to  4  Ibs.  of  milk  produced. 
This  will  be  equivalent  to  feeding  about  7  Ibs.  of  grain  for  1  Ib.  of  butter  fat 
produced.  Cows  producing  milk  with  high  per  cent  of  butter  fat  should  re- 
ceive the  larger  amount  of  grain. 

In  Summer  Time. — Do  not  try  to  save  feed  by  turning  to  pasture  too 
early  in  the  season.  It  is  bad  for  both  cows  and  pasture. 

Provide  plenty  of  pure,  fresh  water,  shade  and  protection  against  flies. 

Supplement  poor  pastures  with  corn  silage  or  green  soiling  crops  like 
rye,  oats  and  peas,  green  corn  fodder,  and  other  available  feed.  Keep  up  the 
production  by  feeding  hay  and  grain  if  necessary. 

A  Winter  Schedule  for  Dairy  Barn  Work.— Cows  as  well  as  people  are  to 
a  very  large  extent  creatures  of  habit,  and  regularity  in  all  work  pertaining 


26  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

to  management  of  the  herd  is  most  easily  and  successfully  accomplished  by 
following  a  definite  schedule.  Irregularity  in  feeding  and  milking  times  re- 
duces the  year's  production  of  cows  very  materially.  The  following  schedule 
for  herd  and  barn  work  is  offered  as  a  suggestion : 

Morning.  Afternoon. 

4 :30 — Feed  grain.  3 :00 — Reclean  stables. 

4:45 — Milk  cows.  4:00 — Water  cows. 

6:15 — Feed  silage.  4:15 — Feed  grain.* 

6  :30— Feed  hay.  4 :30— Milk  cows. 

7 :30 — Water  cows.  6  :00 — Feed  silage. 

7 :45 — Clean  stables  and  bed  cows.  6 :15 — Feed  hay. 

9  :00 — Groom  cows/  8 :00 — Water  cows  and  arrange  bed- 
ding. 

Turn  cows  out  each  day  for  one-half  to  two  hours,  unless  it  is  extremely 
cold  or  stormy. 

*If  barn  is  well  ventilated  and  there  is  no  difficulty  from  silage  flavor 
in  milk,  the  grain  and  silage  may  be  fed  together. 

The  Selection  of  Feeds  for  Dairy  Rations. — Dairy  rations  ordinarily  con- 
sist of  a  combination  of  concentrated  feeds  and  roughages.  Concentrated 
feeds  include  farm  grains,  by-products  of  grains  and  a  mixture  of  feeds 
offered  on  the  market  as  commercial  feeding  stuffs.  Roughages  include 
various  kinds  of  hay,  silage,  soiling  crops,  roots,  fodder  and  straw.  Straw  and 
the  poorer  grades  of  hay  and  fodder  should  be  fed  to  dry  stock  and  the  better 
grades  of  roughages  saved  for  cows  that  are  fresh  and  capable  of  doing  the 
best  work. 

Home-Made  Grain  Mixtures  for  Dairy  Cows. — These  mixtures  are  more 
satisfactory  and,  at  normal  prices,  less  expensive  for  milk  production  than 
feeding  farm  grown  grains  exclusively.  Dairymen  in  every  community  should 
co-operate  with  their  local  feed  dealers  or  feed  agents  to  secure  these  feeding 
stuffs  at  the  most  reasonable  prices. 

No.  1.                                           Lbs.  No.  3.                                           Lbs. 

Wheat  bran 40      Corn  and  cob  meal 20 

Gluten  feed 10      Ground  oats .« 30 

Ground  oats 20      Wheat  bran  40 

Corn  meal 20      Oil  meal 10 

Oil  meal 10 

No.  4.  Lbs. 

No.  2.  Lbs.      Ground  oats 25 

Wheat  bran 30      Corn  meal 25 

Corn  meal 25      Wheat  bran 20 

Ground  oats 30      Malt  sprouts 20 

Oil  meal  .  ,   15      Oil  meal  .  ,   10 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  27 

No.  5.                                             Lbs.  No.  7.                                            Lbs. 

Dist.  grains 30      Wheat  bran 40 

Wheat  bran   30      Corn  meal  or  hominy 30 

Ground  oats 20      Dist.  grain  or  gluten  feed 20 

Corn  meal  15      Cottonseed  meal  10 

Oil  meal 5 

No.  6.  Lbs.          No.  8.  Lbs. 

Wheat  bran 40      Wheat  bran 40 

Ground  oats   35      Distillers'  Grains 40 

Gluten  feed 25      Cottonseed  meal 20 

A  complete  ration  for  a  cow  weighing  approximately  1,000  Ibs.  may  be 
made  by  feeding  1  Ib.  of  grain  for  every  3  or  4  Ibs.  of  milk  produced  in  addition 
to: 

30  Ibs.  of  corn  silage  or  soiling,  and  10  Ibs.  hay,   (clover  or  alfalfa 

preferred),  or 

30  Ibs.  roots  arid  15  Ibs.  of  hay,  or 
8  Ibs.  dried  beet  pulp  soaked  12  to  24  hours  prior  to  feeding  and  10 

Ibs.  hay,  or 

20  Ibs.  of  hay  with  1  to  2  Ibs.  of  oil  meal  extra. 

Cows  which  give  milk  of  high  percent  of  butterfat  should  receive  1  Ib. 
of  grain  for  every  3  Ibs.  of  milk  produced,  and  cows  exceeding  1,000  Ibs.  in 
live  weight  should  receive  a  relatively  larger  amount  of  hay  and  silage  or 
roots.  If  dried  distillers'  grains  are  not  available,  gluten  feed,  dried  brewers' 
grains  or  malt  sprouts,  with  preference  in  the  order  named,  may  be  substituted 
for  them.  Barley,  hominy,  rye  or  Kafir  grain  may  be  substituted  for  corn. 
Equal  parts  of  bran  and  corn  meal  are  a  substitute  for  oats  when  prices  and 
the  available  supply  necessitates.  Cotton  seed  meal  does  not  have  the  laxative 
property  that  oil  meal  contains,  but  with  succulent  feeds  like  silage  and  roots 
and  other  laxative  feeds  like  bran,  clover  and  alfalfa  hay,  may  be  fed  to  good 
advantage  as  a  substitute  in  supplying  protein. 

THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS. 

Feeds  for  dairy  rations  are  selected  and  purchased  largely  on  the  basis 
of  their  values  and  composition.  Feeding  stuffs  are  composed  primarily  of 
water,  crude  fiber,  crude  protein  and  fat.  The  more  important  compounds 
that  all  feeds  contain  and  that  should  be  carefully  considered  in  the  selection 
of  feeds  for  rations  are:  dry  matter,  crude  fiber,  protein,  carbohydrates  and 
fat 

Dry  Matter. — The  portion  of  a  feeding  stuff  "that  would  remain  if  the 
water  or  moisture  contained  therein  were  driven  off  by  heat.  It  constitutes 
the  main  mass  or  bulk  of  feeds.  An  excess  of  moisture  should  be  guarded 
against.  It  may  incur  the  loss  of  feed  and  in  buying  one  does  not  want  to 
pay  for  more  moisture  than  is  necessary. 


28 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


-o 

o 

3 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  29 

Crude  Fiber. — The  woody  portion  of  feeds  having  a  low  nutritive  value. 
Farm  grown  grains  of  good  quality  range  in  fiber  from  2  percent  for  corn 
to  approximately  11  percent  for  oats.  Wheat  bran  of  good  quality  averages 
about  10.  percent  fiber,  although  it  is  most  often  guaranteed  at  11  or  12  per- 
cent. As  a  rule  it  is  not  good  economy  to  buy  concentrated  feeds  containing 
more  than  12  to  14  percent  crude  fiber  unless  there  is  some  compensating 
factor  like  high  protein  content  or  a  price  per  ton  that  warrants  their  sub- 
stitution for  other  more  expensive  feeds. 

Protein. — The  portion  of  feeding  stuffs  which  contains  nitrogen.  The 
whites  of  eggs  and  the  casein  or  cheese  part  of  milk  are  good  examples.  Feed 
containing  a  high  protein  content  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  nitrogenous 
feeds.  Oil  meal  is  a  good  example.  Protein  is  used  in  the  animal  body  essen- 
tially for  the  production  of  muscular  tissue,  tendons,  hide,  hair  and  the  casein 
or  cheese  part  of  the  milk. 

Carbohydrates. — The  elements  of  feed  rich  in  carbon  and  containing 
oxygen  and  hydrogen.  They  do  not  contain  nitrogen.  Sugar  and  starch  are 
good  examples.  Carbohydrates  and  fat  serve  the  purpose  of 'supplying  the 
animal  body  with  heat,  energy  for  work,  material  for  the  repair  of  the  body 
tissues,  the  formation  of  body  fat  and  the  fat  in  milk.  Feeds  containing  a 
high  percent  of  carbohydrates  and  a  comparatively  low  percent  of  protein 
are  frequently  called  carbonaceous  feeds.  Corn  is  a  good  example. 

Fat. — The  oil  of  feeds.  Fat  serves  the  same  purpose  as  carbohydrates 
and  is  2.25  times  as  valuable. 

BUYING  FEEDS  FOR  DAIRY  RATIONS. 

The  greatest  opportunity  to  profit  in  buying  feeds  is : 

To  learn  to  know  the  quality  and  values  of  different  kinds  of  feeds  for 
milk  production. 

To  know  where,  when  and  how  feeds  may  be  secured  at  the  most  reason- 
able prices. 

To  co-operate  with  other  dairymen  in  buying  feed  in  large  quantities. 

To  have  a  suitable  place  for  storing  purchased  feeds  where  their  cleanli- 
ness and  palatability  will  not  be  lessened  by  rats,  mice  and  dampness. 

DESCRIPTION  AND  DEFINITION  OF  CONCENTRATED  FEEDS. 

A  brief  description  of  the  concentrated  feeds  commonly  used  in  mixtures 
for  dairy  cattle  in  the  Northwest  will  be  helpful  in  selecting  and  utilizing  them. 

Corn. — Corn  in  the  form  of  meal  or  chops  regardless  of  its  being  dent, 
flint  or  of  various  colors,  is  valuable  as  part  of  a  dairy  ration.  It  is  palatable 
and  one  of  the  best  sources  of  energy.  On  account  of  its  low  protein  contents 
and  heavy  nature,  it  is  best  to  feed  it  in  combination  with  feeds  of  bulkier 
and  comparatively  heavier  protein  contents.  Commercial  corn  meal,  corn 
chop  and  corn  feed  'meal  may  be  considered  equal  in  feeding  value. 


30  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Corn  meal  may  be  the  entire  ground  corn  grain  or  corn  meal  and  by- 
products of  corn  grain.  The  corn  feed  meal  is  the  sifting  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  cracked  corn  and  table  corn  meal.  Corn  germ  meal  or  germ 
oil  meal  is  the  corn  germ  layer  from  which  a  part  of  the  oil  ha.s  been  extracted 
and  is  secured  in  the  manufacture  of  starch,  glucose  and  other  corn  products. 
It  is  not  ordinarily  used  in  dairy  rations. 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal. — Corn  and  cob  meal  is  the  result  of  grinding  corn 
and  cob.  In  order  to  lighten  and  give  bulk  to  the  mixture,  ear  corn  is  often 
ground  for  dairy  rations.  It  should  be  finely  ground  to  insure  best  results  and 
avoid  digestive  disturbances. 

Gluten  Meal  and  Gluten  Feed. — Gluten  meal  is  a  corn  by-product  remain- 
ing afte'r  the  starch  germ  and  bran  have  been  removed  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facturing cornstarch  and  glucose.  Gluten  feed  is  the  finely  ground  combina- 
tion of  gluten  meal  and  corn  bran.  It  is  very  frequently  used  in  mixtures  of 
considerable  variety,  to  supply  protein  in  dairy  rations.  A  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  gluten  feed  and  wheat  bran  with  corn  silage  and  alfalfa  hay  has 
proven  satisfactory  as  a  ration  for  dairy  cows. 

Continental  Gluten  Feed. — This  by-product  is  a  dried  distillers'  grain  and 
should  be  considered  in  a  class  with  distillers'  grains  rather  than  as  gluten 
feed. 

Hominy  Feed,  Hominy  Meal,  Hominy  Chop. — These  feeds  are  a  mixture 
of  bran,  the  germ  and  a  part  of  the  starchy  portion  of  corn  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  hominy  grits  and  brewers'  grits.  It  is  similar  in  composition 
to  corn  meal,  is  somewhat  bulkier  and  keeps  better  in  storage.  It  is  a  suitable 
feed  to  take  the  place  of  corn  meal  in  dairy  rations. 

Wheat  By-products. — Bran,  shorts  or  standard  middlings,  flour  or  wheat 
middlings  and  Red  dog  flour  are  by-products  of  wheat  suitable  for  dairy 
rations. 

Wheat  Bran. — This  is  the  outer  coatings  of  the  wheat  kernel.  It  is  gen- 
erally regarded  one  of  the  very  best  feeds  for  cows.  It  is  slightly  laxative, 
keeps  the  cow's  digestive  system  in  good  condition  and  gives  bulk  and  palata- 
bility  to  the  ration.  Bran  contains  a  high  proportion  of  phosphorus  and 
potash  in  its  ash  content.  25  to  50  percent  of  a  mixture  for  dairy  cows  can 
well  be  bran.  The  price  and  other  available  feeds  should  determine  the 
amount  used.  Bran  that  is  pure  has  a  higher  feeding  value  than  bran  with 
mill  run  screenings  which  is  pure  bran  plus  the  screenings  which  are  separated 
from  the  wheat  used  in  preparing  the  bran.  In  buying  large  quantities  of  bran 
it  is  well  to  secure  samples  and  buy  subject  to  them. 

Shorts  or  Standard  Wheat  Middlings. — Shorts  or  standard  wheat  mid- 
dlings consist  of  the  finer  particles  of  bran  with  considerable  flour  adhering. 

Flour  or  Wheat  Middlings. — These  are  the  portions  of  ground  wheat 
separated  from  the  fine  flour  and  coarse  bran. 

Red  Dog  Flour. — This  is  a  'low  grade  of  wheat  flour  containing  chiefly 
the  wheat  germs.  It  is  comparatively  rich  in  protein  and  more  valuable  than 
middlings.  These  feeds  are  less  bulky,  less  laxative  and  contain  a  smaller 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  31 

quantity  of  ash  than  wheat  bran.  They  are  slightly  higher  in  protein  and  in 
total  nutrients  than  wheat  bran  and  usually  higher  in  price.  Their  pasty 
condition  when  moist  necessitates  using  them  in  mixtures  having  considerable 
variety  to  insure  palatability. 

Wheat  Screenings. — They  consist  of  broken,  shrivelled  wheat  kernels, 
weed  seeds  and  other  foreign  material.  Screenings  should  be  finely  ground 
to  overcome  the  growth  of  noxious  weeds  from  seeds  which  may  pass  un- 
injured through  animals  and  be  carried  to -the  fields  in  manure.  They  may 
be  regarded  as  more  valuable  for  sheep  feeding  than  for  dairy  rations.  Except 
as  bran  with  mill-run  screenings  in  the  ration,  they  are  not  generally  used  for 
dairy  cattle. 

BARLEY,  OATS  AND  RYE. 

Barley. — Barley  is  a  palatable  feed  and  substitute  for  corn  meal  where 
the  price  permits.  Like  corn  it  should  be  ground  and  fed  in  combination  with 
other  feeds  that  increase  the  bulk  and  protein  of  the  mixture. 

Oats. — When  ground  oats  compare  with  bran  in  price,  they  are  well 
adapted  for  feeding  dairy 'cattle.  They  are  bulky,  palatable  and  slightly 
laxative.  The  price  should  determine  the  amount  included  in  grain  mixtures. 

Rye. — Rye  is  not  especially  palatable  and  tends  to  produce  a  tallowy 
butter.  Its  composition  is  similar  to  corn  and  if  fed  to  dairy  cows  should  be 
mixed  with  other  feeds. 

Ernmer  or  Speltz. — This  grain  is  a  part  of  the  wheat  family  grown  in 
semi-arid  regions.  In  composition  it  is  similar  to  barley  and  corn.  Feeding 
trials  with  dairy  cows  indicate  that  its  value  is  more  than  10  per  cent  less 
than  that  of  barley  or  corn. 

BUCKWHEAT  BY-PRODUCTS. 

Buckwheat  Hulls. — These  are  the  black  wheat  hulls  of  buckwheat  grain 
dnd  have  little  feeding  value. 

Buckwheat  Middlings. — These  are  the  part  of  the  kernel  immediately 
under  the  hulls  which  are  separated  from  the  flour  in  the  process  of  milling. 
They  are  heavy  and  are  best  fed  in  comparatively  small  quantities  in  com- 
bination with  other  feeds.  They  are  often  a  cheap  source  of  protein. 

Buckwheat  Bran  or  Feed. — This  is  a  combination  of  middlings  and  a 
given  per  cent  of  hulls,  and  possesses  a  feeding  value  considerably  lower  than 
that  of  middlings. 

Dried  Distillers'  Grains. — The  dried  residue  from  corn  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  alcohol  and  distilled  liquors  constitutes  a  bulky,  palatable, 
high  protein  feed  for  dairy  cows.  Dried  distillers'  grains  from  rye  possess 
less  than  two-thirds  the  value  of  dried  distillers'  grains  from  corn.  25  to  40 
per  cent  of  the  grain  mixture  for  dairy  cows  can  well  be  corn  dried  distillers' 
grains. 

Brewers'  Dried  Grains. — These  grains  are  the  properly  dried  residue  from 
cereals  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer.  They  constitute  a  bulky  feed  rich 


32  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

in  protein.  In  combination  with  feeds  that  insure  palatability  they  serve  well 
in  dairy  rations.  It  is  often  necessary  to  develop  the  appetite  of  cows  for 
them  by  gradually  introducing  them  into  the  mixture. 

Brewers'  Wet  Grains. — The  freshly  extracted  residue  obtained  in  malting 
and  brewing  grains  for  beer  provides  a  suitable  feed  for  dairy  cattle.  On 
farms  near  breweries  where  the  grains  can  be  secured  and  kept  and  utilized  in 
a  fresh,  wholesome  condition,  20  to  30  Ibs.  per  head  daily  may  be  fed  with 
hay  and  other  roughage. 

Malt  Sprouts. — As  a  source  of  protein,  malt  sprouts  mixed  with  other 
feeds  to  insure  palatability,  may  be  fed  to  good  advantage  to  dairy  cows. 
They  are  the  shrivelled  sprouts  from  dried  malt  grains.  The  amount  fed  daily 
should  not  exceed  2  Ibs.  unless  they  are  soaked  before  feeding. 

Linseed  Oil  Meal. — The  ground  residue  of  flaxseed  obtained  in  the  process 
of  extracting  oil  from  flaxseed,  can  well  be  5  to  20  per  cent  of  the  grain 
mixture  for  dairy  cattle.  Old  process  oil  meal  refers  to  the  residue  obtained 
from  crushing  the  flaxseed  and  pressing  out  the  oil.  New  process  oil  meal 
is  the  result  of  crushing  the  flaxseed  and  dissolving  out  the  oil  meal  with 
naphtha.  In  the  United  States  nearly  all  the  linseed  oil  meal  is  made  by  the 
old  process  which  is  regarded  the  better  process  from  the  feeder's  standpoint. 
Oil  meal  is  laxative  and  is  valuable  for  conditioning  animals  as  well  as  in 
furnishing  protein. 

Cotton  Seed  Meal  and  Cotton  Seed  Feed. — Cotton  seed  meal  is  the  finely 
ground  residue  secured  in  extracting  oil  from  cotton  seed.  The  meal  is  graded 
on  the  basis  of  its  protein  content.  Choice  refers  to  meal  excellent  in  quality, 
sweet  in  odor,  yellow  in  color  without  excess  of  lint  and  contains  at  least  41 
per  cent  of  protein.  Prime  refers  to  meal  similar  to  choice  and  contains  only 
38.6  per  cent  protein.  Good  refers  to  meal  finely  ground,  not  necessarily 
bolted,  however,  of  sweet  odor,  reasonably  bright  in  color  and  must  contain 
at  least  36  per  cent  of  protein.  Cotton  seed  meal  is  slightly  constipating  and 
is  used  largely  as  a  source  of  protein.  Prices  often  warrant  using  5  to  20  per 
cent  of  cotton  seed  meal  in  mixtures  for  dairy  cattle. 

Dried  Beet  Pulp. — The  dried  residue  of  feeds  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  sugar  is  commonly  used  as  a  feed,  for  dairy  cattle.  This  feed  is  best  used 
when  soaked  24  hours  prior  to  feeding  it  and  fed  in  combination  with  other 
feeds.  Approximately  8  Ibs.  of  dried  beet  pulp  soaked  12  to  24  hours  offers 
a  substitute  for  green  roots  or  corn  silage.  The  pulp  is  often  fed  to  good 
advantage,  to  give  variety  to  rations  for  test  cows. 

Alfalfa  Meal. — Commercial  alfalfa  meal  is  the  entire  alfalfa  hay  ground 
without  an  admixture  of  ground  alfalfa  straw  or  foreign  materials,  except  in 
combination  with  molasses  to  keep  down  the  dust  and  with  feeds  that  require 
greater  bulk  and  palatability,  alfalfa  is  best  fed  to  dairy  cattle  in  the  form 
of  hay.  Dairymen  desiring  to  use  alfalfa  meal  should  consider  the  possibility 
of  grinding  their  own  hay  and  mixing  it  to  suit  their  needs. 

Mixed  Dairy  Feeds. — These  vary  in  their  character  owing  to  the  nature 
of  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed.  Some  possess  merit  and  others 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION 


33 


cannot  be  considered  desirable  feeds.  Mixed  dairy  feeds  containing  less  than 
8  per  cent  of  crude  protein  and  as  much  as  20  per  cent  of  crude  fiber,  do  not 
constitute  good  concentrated  feeds  even  if  sold  at  attractive  prices. 

DAIRY  FARM  ORGANIZATION. 

A  well  organized  and  well  tilled  dairy  farm  does  much  to  provide  suitable 
feeds  and  to  reduce  the  cost  of  feeds  for  dairy  cattle.  A  rotation  that  will 
provide  an  abundance  of  corn  silage,  alfalfa,  clover  or  mixed  hay,  one  or  more 
cereal  grains  and  pasture  in  rotation  or  of  a  permanent  kind,  should  be  adopted 
and  secured  as  early  as  possible. 

Pastures  in  most  sections  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  feed  throughout 
the  summer  and  soiling  crops  or  the  silo  for  summer  silage  should  be  provided. 
The  following  tabulation  of  crops  offers  a  suggestion  on  a  series  of  crops  that 
may  be  grown  for  soiling  purposes.  The  acreage  under  average  conditions 
is  considered  sufficient  for  ten  cows  that  have  the  benefit  of  good  grass  pasture 
for  right  pasture. 

A  SUCCESSION  OF  SOILING  CROPS  FOR  DAIRY  COWS 


Pounds 
CROP           Seed 
per 
Acre 

Time 
of 
Sowing 

Approximate 

Degree 
of 
Maturity 

Pala- 
tability 

Time 
of 
Cutting 

Daily 
Feed 
per 
Cow 

Acre- 
age for 
10 
Cows 

Fall  rye          .  .      168 

Sept.  10 

May  15-  June  1 

June  1-15 
June  15-25 

June  25-July  5 
-July  5-15 

July  15-25 
July  15-30 

Aug.  1-15 
Aug.  15-25 

Aug.  25-Sept.  10 

Sept.  10-25 
Sept.  25-Oct.  10 

38 

36 
36 

32 
32 

32    . 
36 

42 
40 

39 

39 

42 

1/3 

1/3 

1/8 

1/6 
1/6 
1/6 

Before  blooming 

Before  blooming 
In  bloom 

In  milk 
In  milk 

In  milk 
Before  blooming 

Mature 
In  silk 

When  well  headed 

In  silk 
Mature 

Poor 

Fair 
Fair 

Average 
Average 

Average 
Average 

Good 
Very 
good 
Very 
good 

Very 
good 
Good 

\lfalfa                     20 

Red  clover  20 
Peas  and  oats.  P60-O48 
Peas  and  oats.  P  60  O48 
Oats               .  .       80 

Apr.  16 
Apr.  26 
May  5 

2d  crop  alfalfa              .  . 

Rape  2.5 

May  26 
May  20 

June  1 

May  31 
July  20 

1/8 

1/8 

1/10 

1/8 
1/8 

Flint  corn          

Sorghum  50 

Evergreen 
sweet  corn             .... 

Rane..                   2.5 

Total  acreage 1.9 

Soiling  Crops  vs.  Silage  for  Dairy  Cows. — There  are  several  reasons  why 
the  silo  is  a  better  source  of  feed  for  cows  in  summer  than  land  seeded  to  soil- 
ing crops: 

It  requires  less  labor  to  grow  corn  for  silage  than  it  does  to  grow  a 
variety  of  soiling  crops. 


34 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  35 

The  seed  for  a  crop  of  corn  to  put  into  the  silo  costs  less  than  the  seed 
for  sowing  soiling  crops. 

The  labor  required  to  put  up  and  feed  a  given  amount  of  silage  will  be 
less  expensive  than  the  labor  required  to  secure  and  feed  soiling  crops.  The 
inconvenience  of  feeding  silage  will  also  be  much  less. 

Corn  for  silage  returns  a  large  tonnage  per  acre  and  is  much  less  sus- 
ceptible to  loss  due  to  drought  or  over-ripe  condition. 

Silage  provides  a  more  uniform  feed. as  regards  quality  and  palatability 
than  one  is  assured  of  getting  in  soiling  crops. 

On  the  whole  it  is  much  easier  to  control  conditions  that  insure  good 
silage  than  it  is  to  control  those  which  insure  good  soiling  crops. 

Silos  and  Silage. — The  organization  of  dairy  and  general  live  stock  farms 
is  not  complete  without  one  or  more  silos.  Silos  made  of  concrete,  brick,  wood 
and  other  materials  which  insure  an  air-tight  wall,  are  in  general  use,  and 
satisfactory.  The  chief  differences  between  silos  are  in  cost,  durability  and 
expense  for  repairs. 

Crops  Suitable  for  the  Silo. — A  silo  is  most  valuable  for  the  storage  of 
corn  that  is  harvested  when  the  ears  are  nicely  glazed  or  the  crop  is  ordinarily 
ready  to  be  put  into  the  shock.  Peas  and  oats  cut  when  the  oats  are  in  the 
milk  or  dough  stage,  freshly  cut  clover  and  alfalfa,  a  mixture  of  corn  and  clover, 
alfalfa  or  soy  beans,  shock  corn  or  stover  mixed  with  beet  tops,  and  refuse 
from  canning  factories,  may  also  be  stored  in  the  silo  to  good  advantage.  Two 
bushels  of  peas  and  one  bushel  of  oats  mixed  and  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels 
per  acre,  can  usually  be  cut  with  a  grain  binder  and  handled  very  conveniently  when 
ready  for  the  silo.  They  make  an  excellent  means  for  providing  summer  silage 
for  dairy  cows  where  there  is  not  an  abundance  of  corn  silage.  Clover  or  alfalfa 
is  best  made  into  hay  and  only  when  the  weather  does  not  permit  good  hay  being 
made  is  it  advisable  to  put  these  crops  into  the  silo.  Late  cuttings  of  these 
crops  mixed  with  corn,  increase  the  amount  and  add  to  the  protein  content  of 
silage. 

Silage  an  Economic  Feed. — Three  tons  of  corn  silage  contain  practically 
the  same  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  as  one  ton  of  hay  and  require  only  one- 
third  as  much  storage  space.  The  entire  plant  is  usually  put  into  the  silo,  thus 
there  is  the  least  chance  of  waste.  The  loss  of  dry  matter  from  corn  when 
shocked,  husked  and  handled  in  the  usual  manner,  ranges  from  20  to  25  per- 
cent. Properly  put  into  the  silo  the  loss  is  only  5  to  10  percent,  and  the  crop  is 
preserved  in  a  manner  to  yield  a  uniform  quality  of  feed  as  long"  as  it  lasts,  and 
comes  the  nearest  to  being  a  substitute  for  good  grass  pasture  of  any  other  feed. 

Corn  silage  is  especially  valuable  for  dairy  and  beef  cattle,  sheep  and 
horses.  Hogs  like  it,  but  do  not  utilize  it  in  a  manner  to  warrant  their  receiving 
it.  All  classes  of  animals  need  to  be  gradually  accustomed  to  silage,  after  which 
dairy  cattle  may  receive  25  to  40  pounds  per  head  daily,  beef  and  growing 
cattle  15  to  20  pounds,  sheep  1  to  2  pounds,  and  horses  10  to  15  pound?. 
Horses  must  be  fed  judiciously  and  guarded  against  colic. 

A  silo  on  a  dairy  farm  saves  25  to  30  percent  of  the  amount  of  hay  other- 


36  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

wise  required.  It  provides  excellent  succulent  feed  with  which  to  supplement 
or  replace  summer  pastures  that  are  short  or  spoiled  by  drought. 

Silo  Troubles  Not  Serious. — Mold,  due  to  improperly  mixing  and  packing 
the  silage  at  time  of  filling,  or  not  feeding  it  at  a  rate  to  keep  the  surface  from 
spoiling,  and  freezing  in  winter  are  the  chief  difficulties  experienced  with  silos. 
Moldy  silage  is  injurious  and  must  not  be  fed.  Frozen  silage  is  dangerous  and 
should  not  be  fed  until  after  being  thawed  out,  when  it  is  perfectly  wholesome 
if  fed  before  mold  develops.  In  winter  time  one  should  be  careful  to  keep  the 
surface  level  or  the  outer  edges  slightly  lower.  Silage  freezes  from  the  top  and 
more  about  the  edges  than  in  the  center.  Covers  to  keep  out  the  cold  made  with 
straw  or  blankets  are  helpful. 

Location  of  the  Silo. — The  silo  to  protect  the  silage  from  freezing  should 
be  located  if  possible  at  the  south  side  of  the  barn.  In  extremely  cold  sections 
it  may  be  advisable  to  build  the  silo  inside  the  barn.  The  diameter  of  the  silo 
should  be  such  that  it  can  be  fed  down  at  the  rate  of  il/2  to  2  inches  over  the 
entire  surface  each  day.  This  rate  of  feeding  is  necessary  to  prevent  mold  and 
to  insure  the  best  quality  of  feed.  A  silo  of  small  diameter  is  most  suitable 
for  summer  feeding. 

When  to  Fill  the  Silo. — Corn  makes  the  best  silage  when  the  majority 
of  the  ears  are  dented  or  are  just  beginning  to  glaze.  If  corn  is  put  into  the 
silo  before  this  stage  of  maturity  is  reached,  the  silage  becomes  very  sour  or  acid 
and  will  have  a  low  feeding  value. 

If  the  crop  is  allowed  to  get  over-ripe  or  dry  it  does  not  pack  well  and  being 
deficient  in  moisture  is  almost  certain  to  produce  moldy  silage. 

Moisture  Necessary  for  Good  Silage. — When  the  corn  becomes  dry  from 
being  allowed  to  get  ripe  or  due  to  frost,  good  silage  can  be  made  from  it  if 
water  is  added  at  the  time  of  filling.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the 
right  amount  of  water  to  add.  A  sufficient  amount  should  be  used  to  insure 
having  the  corn  well  packed.  The  water  should  be  added  during  the  process  of 
filling,  otherwise  it  may  fail  to  reach  all  the  parts  and  thus  cause  moldy  silage. 
Water  can  be  run  into  the  blower  or  distributed  in  the  silo  by  means  of  a  hose. 

Length  to  Cut  Corn  for  Silage. — Silage  is  usually  cut  in  l/2-mch  lengths. 
If  cut  longer  than  this  the  cows  refuse  to  eat  the  coarser  portions  of  stalks  and 
thus  cause  waste.  Dull  cutter  knives  increase  the  amount  of  power  required  to 
cut  the  corn  and  also  leave  it  in  a  shredded  condition  which  makes  it  difficult  to 
properly  pack  the  silage. 

Distribution  of  Corn  in  Silo  Important. — It  is  very  essential  that  the 
cut  corn  be  well  distributed  at  the  time  of  filling.  If  this  is  not  done  the  heavier 
portions  will  fall  in  one  place  and  the  higher  material  in  another.  This  will  cause 
the  mass  of  silage  to  settle  unevenly  and  spoiled  silage  will  result.  Thor- 
oughly mixed  fodder  and  corn  are  also  desirable  to  insure  best  results  in 
feeding. 

Silage  Must  Be  Well  Packed. — During  the  process  of  filling  the  cut  ma- 
terial should  be  kept  slightly  higher  at  the  edges  than  in  the  center  and  should 
be  well  tramped  against  the  sides  where  the  friction  of  the  silage  against  the 
wall  tends  to  prevent  settling.  Tramping  in  the  center  of  the  silo  is  not  neces- 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  37 

sary  for  the  weight  of  a  man  is  small  compared  to  the  weight  of  the  silage. 
Silos  that  are  deep  and  of  small  diameter  require  less  tramping  than  those  of 
larger  dimensions.  Two  competent  men  in  a  silo  who  understand  the  importance 
of  securing  well  packed  silage  are  insurance  against  loss. 

Sealing  the  Surface. — It  is  not  necessary  to  put  on  any  cover  after  fill- 
ing is  completed.  A  few  inches  of  the  top  will  always  spoil.  If  the  ears  are  re- 
moved from  the  last  few  loads  of  corn  nothing  will  be  lost  except  the  fodder.  If 
there  happens  to  be  some  refuse  close  by  such  as  weeds,  slew  grass,  or  waste 
from  the  barn  floor,  to  put  on,  the  saving  will  pay  for  the  extra  labor.  The  usual 
practice  of  sealing  is  to  wet  down  the  surface  immediately  after  filling  and  to 
tramp  thoroughly  several  times  during  the  first  week.  By  this  method  a  seal  of 
rotten  silage  will  form  on  the  top  and  only  a  few  inches  will  be  spoiled.  This 
crust  should  not  be  broken  until  feeding  begins  when  all  the  spoiled  silage  should 
be  removed  and  discarded. 

The  silo  should  be  well  ventilated  until  heating  and  fermentation  is  over. 

Silage  from  Sugar  Beet  Tops  and  Shock  Corn. — Sugar  beet  tops  and  shock 
corn  have  been  successfully  cut  up  together  for  silage  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin. The  silage  had  a  slightly  stronger  odor  than  the  ordinary  corn  silage 
but  was  not  offensive.  Cows  relished  it  and  did  as  well  on  it  as  they  did  on  regular 
corn  silage.  Chemical  analysis  showed  that  this  silage  had  practically  the  same 
feeding  value  as  clear  corn  silage.  Professor  Henry  states  that  the  leaves  of  sugar 
beets  have  about  half  the  feeding  value  of  the  roots.  Taking  into  consideration 
this  fact  one  is  impressed  with  the  importance  of  utilizing  the  beet  tops  for  feed. 
Making  them  into  silage  with  corn  fodder  proved  so  satisfactory  that  it  seems 
worth  while  to  publish  the  fact  as  a  suggestion  to  the  many  farmers  who  grow 
large  crops  of  sugar  beets  and  who  are  undoubtedly  facing  the  problem  of  how 
best  to  utilize  the  tops  for  feeding  purposes. 

After  the  beets  were  removed  from  the  field,  the  tops  which  had  been  left 
in  small  piles  were  run  through  an  ensilage  cutter  into  the  silo  with  about  an 
equal  quantity  of  corn  fodder  taken  from  the  shock.  By  throwing  beet  tops  onto 
a  large  layer  of  corn  and  running  both  through  the  cutter  together,  no  difficulty 
was  experienced  in1  getting  the  beet  tops  cut.  Enough  water  was  added  to  the  cut 
material  to  give  it  proper  moisture  and  make  it  pack  well  when  two  men  tramped 
it  during  the  time  of  filling. 

The  Dairy  Barn. — No  cow  can  be  kept  in  a  healthy  condition  in  a  dark, 
poorly  ventilated  stable.  Sunlight  is  a  disinfectant  and  insures  healthy  cows  and 
conditions  under  which  milk  can  be  produced  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner. 
Barns  36  feet  wide  and  extending  lengthwise  north  and  south  are  best  lighted. 
Four  to  six  square  feet  of  window  sash  should  be  provided  for  each  cow.  The 
stable  should  be  properly  ventilated  and  kept  clean  as  well  as  supplied  with  plenty 
of  light.  The  King  system  of  ventilation  which  provides  a  circulation  of  fresh  air 
and  at  the'  same  time  renders  the  stable  comfortably  warm,  is  highly  recom- 
mended. This  system  admits  air  through  flues  with  opening  into  the  stable  near 
the  ceiling,  and  draws  the  stable  air  out  through  another  set  of  flues  with  openings 
from  the  stable  near  the  floor  of  the  stable.  The  Rutherford  system  of  having 


38  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

a  more  direct  intake  and  outtake  of  air  with  the  amount  properly  regulated,  is 
also  highly  recommended. 

Frequent  applications  of  whitewash  over  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  stable, 
keep  stables  clean  and  disinfected.  Cobwebs  and  dust  should  not  be  allowed  to 
collect.  Where  hay  is  kept  in  a  loft  above  the  stable,  there  should  be  no  cracks 
in  the  floor  through  which  dust  can  sift.  Dust  that  rises  at  feeding  time  and  in 
the  process  of  bedding  cattle,  should  have  settled  before  the  hours  of  milking. 
The  stable  manure  should  be  removed  frequently  and  doors  and  windows 
screened  during  fly  seasons.  It  pays  to  groom  cows  and  wipe  the  udders  with 
a  damp  cloth  just  prior  to  milking;  use  half-covered  pails  in  which  to  milk 
and  strain  the  milk  through  a  strainer  provided  with  a  layer  of  absorbent  cotton. 
These  practices  render  milk  most  free  from  dirt  and  bacteria. 

The  Production  and  Handling  of  Market  Milk. — To  further  insure  the 
highest  grade  of  market  milk,  the  milkers  should  be  provided  with  clean,  white 
suits  and  have  facilities  for  washing  their  hands  before  milking  each  cow.  Dairy- 
men should  also  be  particular  to  have  men  in  charge  of  the  herd  and  employed 
to  do  the  milking  who  are  in  perfect  -health  and  who  especially  are  free  from 
contagious  and  infectious  diseases.  The  expense  of  producing  milk  with  bacteria 
reduced  to  a  point  beloyv  10,000  per  cubic  centimeter,  the  standard  for  certified 
milk,  necessitates  dairymen  receiving  prices  for  their  milk  that  are  considerably 
above  the  ordinary  prices  charged  for  market  milk. 

"Milk  is  highly  perishable  and  susceptible  to  foreign  odors  and  flavors.  Every 
precaution  must  be  taken  to  avoid  contamination.  All  utensils  used  for  milk 
should  be  carefully  washed  by  using  washing  powders,  sterilized  with  boiling 
water  or  live  steam  and  kept  where  they  will  not  come  in  contact  with  dust  or 
dirt  Pails,  cans  and  containers  of  all  kinds  should  be  constructed  in  a  manner 
to  have  all  cracks  filled  with  solder  or  the  surface  with  which  the  milk  comes 
in  contact  perfectly  smooth,  to  prevent  the  collection  of  dirt  or  stale  milk  that 
is  the  source  of  contamination. 

The  milk  room  should  be  separated  from  the  stable,  and  be  provided  with 
walls  and  floors  which  are  easily  washed  and  cleaned.  The  doors  and  windows 
should  be  screened  and  ventilation  provided  to  insure  the  circulation  of  pure, 
fresh  air.  A  milk  room  provided  with  hot  and  cold  water,  racks  for  utensils  and 
arranged  for  the  convenient  handling  of  milk,  is  essential  to  the  successful  handling 
of  milk. 

As  soon  as  milk  for  the  market  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  it  should  be  properly 
cooled  and  bottled  or  put  into  containers  and  kept  cool.  The  quicker  this  can  be 
done  after  milking,  the  less  difficulty  there  will  be  in  keeping  the  milk  sweet  and 
wholesome.  Warm  milk  should  never  be  mixed  with  cool  milk.  Milk  that  has  to 
be  separated  for  producing  cream  or  for  standardization  purposes  is  best  separated 
immediately  after  milking  and  then  subjected  to  the  cooling  process. 

The  care  and  handling  of  market  milk  does  not  cease  with  the  delivery  on  the 
part  of  the  producer.  The  patron  who  is  supplied  must  see  to  keeping  the  milk 
where  it  will  remain  cool  and  be  free  from  bad  odors,  flies  and  other  sources  of 
contamination.  The  producer  should  emphasize  this  fact  to  safeguard  his  busi- 
ness. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION 
RAISING  DAIRY  CALVES. 


39 


The  best  way  to  get  a  profit-producing  dairy  herd  is  to  use  only  good,  pure 
bred  sires,  take  good  care  of  the  cows,  and  keep  the  calves  "coming"  right  from 
birth.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  a  good  sire. 

The  Dairy  Sire. — There  are  three  qualifications  which  every  sire  should 


Normal  position  of  calf  in  utero. 


Showing  position  of  twin  calves  in  womb. 


Method  of   putting  rope  on   calf   to 
assist    cow    in    calving.     Clean,    well 
oiled  hands  should  be  used  in  push- 
ing rope  into  neck  of   womb. 


40  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

possess.  He  should  be  pure  bred  and  from  a  family  of  cattle  having  high  milk 
and  butter  fat  production  records. 

He  should  be  a  well  developed,  strong,  vigorous,  individual  possessing 
depth  and  length  of  body  indicating  feed  capacity  and  a  muscular  and  angular 
condition  of  body  indicating  a  dairy  disposition. 

His  dam  should  be  of  ideal  type  and  character  and  capable  of  a  large  milk 
and  butter  fat  production.  The  proof  of  the  value  of  every  sire  is  in  his  get.  It  is 
desirable  to  select  mature  sires  that  have  proved  themselves  capable  of  producing 
heifers  that  are  of  the  most  desirable  type  and  character.  Too  many  sires  are 
sacrificed  before  one  has  an  opportunity  to  appreciate  their  value. 

The  Calf  Should  Be  Well  Born. — To  give  the  calf  as  well  as  its  mother  a 
fair  chance,  a  cow  should  be  carefully  dried  off  six  weeks  before  date  of  calving. 
This  allows  her  to  feed  well  her  unborn  calf  and  to  get  ready  for  her  period  of 
milk  production.  Cows  that  are  not  given  such  rest  usually  produce  weak  and 
undersized  calves.  In  such  cases  both  the  cow  and  her  calf  are  seriously  handi- 
capped. 

From  two  to  four  pounds  of  grain  a  day,  equal  parts  of  bran  and  oats  and  one 
pound  of  oil  meal,  make  a  good  feed  for  the  cow  during  the  dry  or  rest  period. 
The  amount  of  grain  to  be  fed  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  condition  of 
the  cow.  She  should  be  placed  in  a  clean  and  comfortable  box  stall  several 
days  before  calving. 

Give  Calf  Colostrum,  or  "First  Milk." — The  calf  should  be  left  with  its 
mother  for  the  first  two  to  four  days  so  that  it  may  get  the  colostrum,  or  "first 
milk."  From  then  until  it  is  four  weeks  old  it  should  be  fed  from  two  to  five 
pounds  of  its  mother's  milk  three  times  a  day.  Many  experienced  breeders 
feed  calves  which  are  weak  a  smaller  amount  but  give  it  four  times  a  day.  It 
is  well  to  remember  always  that  there  is  more  danger  from  overfeeding  a  young 
calf  than  from  under-feeding  it.  Have  the  pails  clean  and  the  temperature  of  the 
milk  as  near  as  possible  that  of  freshly  drawn  milk,  or  about  95  to  100  degrees  F. 

Feed  Skim  Milk  and  Silage  During  Fifth  Week. — During  the  fifth  week 
change  gradually  from  whole  to  skim  milk.  Do  not  increase  the  amount  fed  until 
about  the  eighth  week,  when  the  calf  needs  from  6  to  10  pounds  twice  daily. 
Froth,  which  rises  on  separator  milk,  should  not  be  fed  to  calves.  It  is  almost 
sure  to  produce  indigestion,  bloat,  and  scours.  '  If  available,  skim  milk  can  be 
fed  profitably  until  the  calf  is  a  year  or  more  old.  In  order  to  get  the  greatest  re- 
turns from  the  milk,  the  amount  fed  to  any  calf  should  not  exceed  20  pounds 
per  day.  Corn  silage,  free  from  coarse  cobs  and  butts,  and  fed  in  small 
amounts,  makes  a  good  feed  for  calves  which  are  a  month  or  six  weeks  of  age. 

Feed  Hay  and  Grain  Carefully. — When  the  calf  is  from  ten  days  to  two 
weeks  old  give  it  a  small  amount  of  choice  mixed  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  A  little 
later  feed  a  very  small  amount  of  grain  and  increase  the  allowance  gradually  as 
the  young  animal  develops.  It  is  well  to  keep  a  calf  a  little  hungry,  rather  than  to 
tax  its  digestive  organs.  A  calf's  appetite  and  the  condition  of  its  bowels  are  the 
two  arms  to  the  guide-post  which  mark  the  course  the  feeder  should  follow. 

Prevent  young  calves  from  eating  coarse  butts  of  fodder  or  cobs  from  silage 
as  these  will  cause  serious  indigestion  and  scours.  Nothing  of  this  kind  should 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  41 

be  left  in  the  feed  or  bedding.  Occasionally,  a  craving  appetite  for  hay  and  straw 
results  in  too  much  being  eaten  and  indigestion  follows.  In  such  cases  separate 
the  ailing  calf  from  its  mates  and  reduce  its  feed  until  the  appetite  becomes 
normal. 

Don't  Allow  Calves  to  Suck  One  Another. — The  calves  should  be  sep- 
arated and  penned  in  groups  according  to  their  ages.  They  can  be  fastened 
in  stanchions  when  milk  is  fed  and  grain  can  be  supplied  them  immediately  after 
they  drink.  Feeding  the  grain  at  this  time  and  keeping  them  locked  in  the 
stanchions  until  the  grain  is  eaten,  helps  to  overcome  the  habit  of  sucking.  Calves 
that  continue  to  suck  one  another  after  being  turned  loose  should  be  separated 
or  some  other  means  taken  to  prevent  the  practice.  Heifers  often  have  their 
udders  injured  by  being  sucked. 

Grain  Mixture  for  Calves. — A  good  grain  mixture  for  young  calves  con- 
sists of  50  parts  of  whole  oats,  30  parts  of  wheat  bran,  10  parts  of  corn  meal, 
and  10  parts  of  oil  meal.  After  calves  are  six  months  old  less  grain  will  be 
wasted  if  it  is  ground.  The  amount  of  grain  fed  should  vary  from  a  small 
handful  for  the  young  calf  to  three  pounds,  or  possibly  more,  in  some  instances, 
to  heifers  from  24  to  30  months' of  age.  If,  for  any  reason,  a  heifer  is  thin, 
an  extra  amount  of  grain  should  be  fed  to  get  her  in  good  condition. 

Feed  Calves  Regularly  the  First  Year. — During  the  first  year  feed  the 
calves  regularly  in  the  barn  and  turn  them  out  for  exercise  in  shady  paddocks 
or  during  the  nights  only.  This  will  insure  satisfactory  growth  at  an  age  when  it 
may  be  secured  at  lowest  cost.  Supply  water  and  salt  to  the  calves  daily. 

Grow  Well  and  Breed  the  Second  Year. — During  their  second  year  feed 
or  pasture  the  heifers  in  such  a  way  as  to  get  the  maximum  growth.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  most  productive  and  profitable  cows  are  produced  by  getting 
the  maximum  growth  from  birth  to  maturity.  Heifers  which  are  bred  at 
from  16  to  20  months  of  age  and  that  are  in  good  flesh  at  calving  time  usually 
develop  satisfactorily. 

Keep  Stables  Clean. — Calf  pens  should  be  kept  clean  and  comfortable. 
The  calves  should  be  protected  from  cold  cement  floors  by  board  overlays.  Cold 
draughts  of  air  often  prove  fatal  and  should  be  carefully  avoided.  Abundant  win- 
dow space  lets  the  sunlight  in  during  the  winter  and  in  the  summer  can  be 
darkened  to  keep  out  flies  and  heat.  The  stable  needs  ventilating  so  as  to  supply 
fresh  air  and  to  regulate  the  temperature.  Young  calves  should  never  be  exposed 
to  a  hot,  burning  sun.  Watch  the  calves  carefully  and  whenever  necessary, 
treat  them  for  lice  and  ringworm. 

Raising  Calves  on  Oil  Meal  Gruel. — Where  skim  milk  is  not  available 
for  feeding  purposes,  calves  are  likely  to  suffer  and  make  an  unsatisfactory  growth. 
However,  if  care  be  taken  calves  may  be  grown  successfully  without  skim- 
milk.  In  one  of  the  prominent  cheese  districts  of  Wisconsin  it  was  an  interesting 
fact  that  very  few  calves  were  fed  whey.  The  whey  is  fed  to  pigs  and  the 
calves  raised  on  whole  milk,  oil  meal  gruel,  and  hay  and  grain.  The  usual  prac- 
tice is  to  feed  whole  milk  regularly  until  the  calf  is  from  four  to  six  weeks  old. 
Then  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  meal,  thoroughly  cooked,  is  added  to  a  pint  of  water 
and  substituted  for  a  pint  of  the  whole  milk.  Every  third  day  following,  an 


42  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

additional  pint  of  water  and  a  tablespoon ful  of  cooked  oil  meal  is  substituted  for  a 
pint  of  the  whole  milk  until  half  the  milk  ration  consists  of  oil  meal  and  water. 
This  half  and  half  mixture  is  usually  continued  until  the  calf  is  from  three  to 
four  months  old  and  able  to  do  well  on  the  ration  of  hay  and  grain. 

The  Whole  Milk  Method. — In  a  prominent  condensery  district  a  breeder 
of  fine  Holstein  cattle  who  gets  splendid  size  in  his  cows,  feeds  whole  milk 
until  the  calves  are  twelve  weeks  old  and  then  depends  on  whole  oats,  hay  and 
pasture. 

In  all  instances  calves  should  be  encouraged  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible 
to  eat  grain  and  hay.  Oats  alone,  or  bran  and  oats,  or  a  mixture  of  50  parts 
oats,  30  parts  bran,  10  parts  corn  meal,  and  10  parts  oil  meal  make  a  good 
grain  ration.  Hay  of  fine  quality,  and  preferably  well  cured  second  cutting 
of  clover  or  alfalfa,  should  be  fed.  Pure  fresh  water  should  be  supplied  daily. 
Calves  should  have  free  access  to  salt  at  all  times  and  everything  should  be 
done  to  provide  clean  and  comfortable  quarters. 

How  Whey  May  Be  Used. — If  whey  is  used  for  raising  calves,  it  should 
be  sweet  and  clean  and  fed  at  about  the  temperature  of  freshly  drawn  milk. 
Each  patron  of  a  cheese  factory  should  have  special  cans  for  getting  as  much 
whey  each  day  as  will  be  needed  for  the  calves  and  have  these  filled  directly 
from  the  cheese  vat.  Whey  from  the  general  whey  vat  is  likely  to  be  sour  or 
otherwise  unfit  to  feed  to  calves.  Sweet  whey  should  only  be  fed  after  the  calf  has 
been  well  started  on  whole  milk. 

One  man  reports  good  results  from  feeding  sweet  whey  and  shelled  corn.  If 
a  handful  of  shelled  corn  is  thrown  into  the  whey  the  calf  soon  learns  to  eat  this 
immediately  after  drinking  the  whey.  Whey,  shelled  corn,  good  hay  and  pasture, 
when  in  season,  together  with  good  care,  gave  good  results  for  this  stockman. 

Treating  Calves  for  Scours. — Calves  that  scour  may  be  treated  success- 
fully in  several  ways  if  the  case  is  not  too  serious.  It  is  well  to  have  one  good 
remedy  for  serious  cases  and  the  following  may  be  recommended : 

As  soon  as  symptoms  appear,  from  two  to  four  tablespoon fuls  of  caster  oil  are 
mixed  with  one-half  pint  of  milk  and  given  to  the  calf.  This  is  followed  in  from 
four  to  six  hours  by  a  teaspoonful  of  a  mixture  of  one  part  salol  and  two  parts  sub- 
nitrate  of  bismuth.  This  mixture  can  be  purchased  at  any  drug  store  and  will  be 
ready  for  use  at  any  time.  The  powder  can  be  given  in  one-half  pint  of  milk  or 
placed  on  the  calf's  tongue  and  washed  down  with  a  small  amount  of  milk. 
The  allowance  of  feed  should  be  reduced  at  once  and  not  increased  until  the  con- 
dition of  the  calf  warrants.  In  mild  cases  castor  oil  is  unnecessary  and  therefore 
can  be  omitted.  Forcing  the  calf  to  eat  an  egg  and  the  shell,  feeding  lime  water 
and  give  a  tablespoonful  of  wheat  flour  are  simple  home  remedies  that  are  used 
successfully. 

Precautions  Against  Scours. — Special  care  needs  to  be  taken  to  avoid 
scours.  Tincture  of  iodine  or  a  solution  of  one  part  bichloride  of  mercury  (corro- 
sive sublimate)  to  500  parts  of  water  applied  several  times  to  the  navel  of  the 
new  born  calf,  safeguards  against  contagious  scours.  It  is  important  to  have 
the  cows  calve  in  disinfected,  clean,  well  lighted,  well  ventilated  pens,  and  to 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  43 

keep  the  calves  in  similar  quarters.     The  following  points  are  important  to 
bear  in  mind : 

Do  not  overfeed ;  have  milk  at  proper  temperature.;  feed  milk  regularly  and 
from  pails  that  are  scrupulously  clean;  if  possible,  feed  the  calf  its  mother's 
milk ;  if  necessary  to  feed  other  milk,  choose  a  cow  which  has  recently  freshened 
and  continue  regularly  with  her  milk;  make  any  changes  in  feed  gradually; 


Dehorning  the  calf  with  caustic  potash.     A  con- 
venient method  of  securing  the  calf  and  doing 
the  work  suggested  in  the  picture.     Read  method 
of  dehorning  calves. 

guard  against  feeds  or  materials  that  will  produce  indigestion  like  sour  milk, 
moldy,  very  coarse  or  woody  feeds,  and  paint,  blankets,  sacks,  etc.,  which  calves 
will  sometimes  eat ;  keep  calves  clean,  dry,  and  out  of  cold  draughts  of  air. 

Dehorning  Calves  with  Caustic  Potash. — For  several  years  calves  born 
at  the  Wisconsin  University  Farm  have  been  dehorned  by  the  use  of  caustic 
potash  and  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  this  method  is  successful  when  properly 
applied. 

The  caustic  potash  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  "buttonlike"  horns  can  be 
felt,  which  is  usually  when  the  calf  is  three  to  ten  days  old.  If  postponed,  the 
operation  will  be  unsatisfactory.  To  apply  the  potash,  remove  the  hair  from 
about  the  horns  close  to  the  skin.  Moisten  the  potash  slightly  and  run  it  over 
the  skin  which  covers  the.  points  of  the  horns  until  the  skin  is  white. 

Do  not  rub  the  skin  until  blood  comes,  as  this  will  cause  unnecessary  sore- 
ness. One  such  treatment  is  usually  sufficient  to  prevent  the  growth  of  the  horns. 

The  following  precautions  need  to  be  taken:  the  caustic  should  be  wrapped  in 


44  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

heavy  paper  so  as  to  protect  the  hands  of  the  operator;  the  caustic  should  be 
only  slightly  moistened ;  too  much  moisture  will  cause  the  liquid  to  run  down 
the  side  of  the  calf's  head,,  and  cause  unnecessary  pain ;  the  calf  must  be  securely 
fastened  so  that  its  head  may  be  held  still  to  avoid  applying  the  caustic  anywhere 
else  than  upon  the  horns.  Preserve  the  stick  of  caustic  potash  in  a  tightly  corked 
bottle,  and  you  will  have  enough  to  dehorn  many  other  calves. 

Treatment  for  Lice  and  Ringworm. — Thoroughly  washing  or  dipping 
calves  is  the  most  effective  means  of  destroying  lice.  Unless  special  provision 
has  been  made  for  doing  so,  it  is  unsafe  to  wash  calves  in  cold  weather.  Usually 
a  two  to  three  per  cent  solution  of  some  of  the  coal  tar  disinfectants  is  recom- 
mended for  washing  stables  and  for  washing  or  dipping  calves  for  lice.  The 
solution  should  not  be  strong  enough  to  irritate  the  skin.  A  good  remedy  for 
lice  on  calves  may  be  made  by  steeping  for  four  hours  four  ounces  of  Larkspur 
(Delphinium)  in  one  gallon  of  boiling  water,  then  straining  and  applying  the 
liquid  to  the  affected  parts.  In  the  winter,  if  the  calves  are  badly  infested  with 
lice  and  the  weather  is  too  cold  to  wash  them,  pyrethrum  powder  may  be  used 
to  advantage.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  lice  powders  are  not  as  effective  as 
thoroughly  washing  or  dipping  calves  with  some  disinfectant. 

Ringworm  may  be  successfully  treated  by  washing  thoroughly  the  affected 
part  of  the  skin  and  applying  a  liquid  made  by  dissolving  two  ounces  of  sulphate 
of  copper  (blue  stone)  in  one  gallon  of  boiling  water. 

BEEF  CATTLE  PRODUCTION. 

The  Production  of  Pure  Bred  Beef  Cattle. — Breeding  pure  bred  cattle 
is  the  highest  type  of  beef  cattle  production  and  represents  the  largest  invest- 
ment and  the  greatest  amount  of  capital  necessary  for  successful  operation. 
One  engaged  in  the  production  of  this  class  of  cattle  must  also  understand  methods 
of  breeding,  feeding  and  developing  live  stock  in  a  manner  to  impress  buyers 
favorably  and  to  secure  profitable  prices.  It  is  necessary  to  depend  upon  the 
demand  for  breeding  stock  in  order  to  sell  and  secure  prices  that  are  profitable. 
The  production  of  pure  bred  beef  cattle  is  ordinarily  confined  to  well  organized 
and  productive  farms  and  it  is  considered  best  for  one  to  graduate  into  this  class 
of  producers  after  having  had  considerable  experience  and  having  gained  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  cattle  industry. 

Cattle  for  Meat  Purposes. — The  production  of  cattle  primarily  for  meat 
purposes  includes  three  lines  of  industry,  namely,  the  production  of  stockers 
and  feeders,  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  the  fattening  of  cattle.  The  section  of  the 
country,  the  character  of  the  land  and  the  organization  of  the  farm  should  de- 
termine what  line  of  cattle  production  will  be  best  for  one  to  select.  Pure  bred 
beef  cattle  not  suitable  for  breeding  purposes,  grade  beef  cattle  resulting  from  the 
use  of  pure  bred  sires  for  several  generations,  and  cross  bred  beef  cattle  are  all 
well  adapted  for  meat  purposes  and  should  be  selected  where  one  depends  upon 
producing  beef  as  the  primary  object  in  live  stock  production. 

The  Production  of  Stockers  and  Feeders. — Stockers  and  feeders  consti- 
tute classes  of  cattle  suitable  for  grazing  or  fattening  and  may  be  profitably 
produced  on  well  organized  farms  having  more  or  less  land  that  cannot  be  plowed 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
score 

Points  Defi  cient 

Points  Deficient 

Student's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Student's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE—  26  POINTS 

Weight,  estimated  Ibs.  ,  according  to  age.  .  . 

6 

8 

8 
1 
3 

2 
1 

Form,  straight  top  line  and  underline;  deep, 
broad,  low  set       

Quality,  firm  handling;  hair  fine;  skin  pliable; 
fine  bone;  evenly  covered  with  firm  flesh.  .  .  . 
Style,  active  upstanding                  

Temperament,  quiet  docile 

HEAD  AND  NECK—  8  POINTS 

Muzzle,  good  size,  mouth  large;  lips  thin,  nos- 
trils large                  

Eyes,  large  clear  placid.                    

Face,  short    quiet  expression       

Forehead,  broad  full.              

1 
1 
2 

3 
4 
2 
1 
3 

6 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture  

Neck  thick  short  throat  clean                     .... 

FORE  QUARTERS—  13  POINTS 

Shoulder  Vein    full 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  snug 

Legs,  straight,  short;  arm  full;  shank  fine,  smooth 
BODY—  28—  POINTS 
Chest,  full  deep,  wide  ;girth,  large;  fore-flank,  full 

5 
8 
5 
3 

4 

5 
3 
5 

4 

2 

HINDQUARTERS—  25  POINTS 
Hips,  smoothly  covered;  distance  apart  in  pro- 

Rump,  long,  even,  wide;  tail  head  smooth,  not 

Legs,  straight,  short;  shank  fine,  smooth  

Total  .  . 

100 

(Score  card  used  at  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture.) 


46  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

profitably,  but  which  yields  excellent  pasture.  In  addition  to  an  abundance  of 
pasture  there  should  be  a  sufficient  amount  of  tillable  land  to  produce  roughage 
for  the  maintenance  of  breeding  and  other  stock  retained  during  the  winter. 
Silage,  clover,  alfalfa  and  a  cereal  crop  are  well  adapted  and  highly  essential 
to  this  type  of  farming  and  cattle  production.  A  given  amount  of  commercial 
feeding  stuffs  to  supplement  roughage  will  be  profitable  in  maintaining  the  breed- 
ing herd  and  growing  the  young  stock  successfully.  Herds  of  high  grade  beef 
cattle  headed  by  pure  bred  sires  of  the  strictly  beef  breeds,  produce  the  most 
profitable  grades  of  stockers  and  feeders. 

Cattle  Grazing. — In  the  West  on  ranches  and  in  other  sections  of  the 
country  where  large  areas  of  land  are  unadapted  for  the  cultivation  of  farm 
crops  and  where  the  seasons  are  suitable,  cattle  may  be  grazed  in  a  manner  to 
be  profitable.  Cattle  for  this  purpose  are  largely  purchased  and  shipped  in  by 
trainload  or  driven  across  the  country.  The  feeding  season  is  limited  to  the 
months  during  which  pasture  grass  grows  and  is  provided  in  abundance.  The 
larger  and  older  classes  of  stock  cattle  graze  and  finish  on  grass  pasture  to  a 
better  advantage  than  do  younger  cattle.  The  character  of  the  land  and  the 
amount  of  grass  which  it  produces,  the  character  of  the  season  which  affects 
growth  of  grass,  and  the  matter  of  securing  cattle  of  suitable  type  and  quality  at 
prices  which  permit  a  margin  of  profit,  are  factors  that  enter  into  the  success  of 
the  grazing  industry. 

Pasture  Conditions. — Mistakes  are  frequently  made  in  buying  and  graz- 
ing cattle  by  misjudging  the  amount  of  feed  available.  One  should  become  a 
judge  of  pasture  lands  and  understand  the  approximate  amount  of  feed  a  given 
area  of  land  will  supply  under  ordinary  conditions  before  investing  too  much  money 
in  cattle  for  grazing  purposes.  The  more  land  over  which  steers  have  to  run  to  se- 
cure ample  feed,  the  less  favorable  will  be  the  results.  Land  that  does  not  provide 
native  or  tame  grasses  in  abundance  is  questionable  for  beef  cattle  grazing.  One 
having  land  suitable  for  grazing  should  do  everything  possible  to  secure  a  good 
stand  of  grass.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  destroying  noxious  weeds,  draining 
land  that  may  be  too  wet,  disking  and  harrowing  in  clover,  timothy  and  other 
grass  seed,  and  applying  top  dressings  of  stable  manure  or  commercial  fertilizer. 
Remembering  that  beef  cattle  require  luxuriant  pastures,  one  will  not  turn  them 
onto  pasture  until  the  grass  has  attained  a  good  growth  and  also  be  careful 
not  to  overstock  a  given  area  of  pasture  land. 

Clover,  alfalfa  and  other  crops  for  pasture,  grown  in  rotation  with  other 
form  crops,  may  be  utilized  to  good  advantage  under  proper  supervision.  The 
system  of  pasture  that  will  provide  the  greatest  amount  of  feed  and  the  largest 
returns  in  beef,  may  be  regarded  best  for  a  respective  locality  and  type  of  farm. 
The  climate  and  amount  of  rainfall  have  a  marked  influence  upon  the  amount  of 
feed  a  given  pasture  will  provide  and  judgment  will  always  have  to  decide  to  what 
extent  other  feed  should  be  used  to  supplement  pasture  or  in  what  manner 
extenuating  circumstances  shall  be  met.  Rotating  cattle  from  one  to  another 
of  two  or  more  fields,  using  meadow  land  after  hay  has  been  removed  and  grass 
has  made  a  start,  will  be  beneficial  to  both  cattle  and  pasture  land.  Corn  silage 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  47 

where  it  can  be  produced,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  feeds  for  supplementing 
pastures  that  become  scant  or  are  too  limited  in  area  for  a  given  number  of 
cattle. 

Turning  Cattle  Onto  Pasture.— Cattle  not  accustomed  to  grass  should 
be  gradually  changed  to  it.  This  is  true  in  the  case  of  turning  onto  any  luxuriant 
grass  pasture  and  especially  should  one  be  careful  in  turning  cattle  onto  clover  or 
alfalfa.  It  overcomes  the  difficulty  and  danger  of  serious  loss  from  bloating  and  a 
good  plan  is  to  turn  cattle  to  grass  for  only  an  hour  or  less  the  first  day  after 
they  have  been  well  filled  on  regular  feed  and  the  grass  is  free  from  dew  or  wet. 
Allow  them  to  remain  on  the  pasture  for  a  little  longer  time  each  succeeding 
day  until  their  systems  have  become  accustomed  to  the  grass  as  indicated  by  the 
bowel  condition  when  the  danger  is  past  and  they  may  be  allowed  to  remain  on 
pasture  continuously.  It  is  always  a  safe  precaution  to  watch  cattle  closely 
and  be  prepared  to  treat  cases  of  bloat  while  they  are  being  accustomed  to 
pasture.  Having  access  to  dry  feed,  hay  or  straw  after  coming  off  the  pasture, 
helps  cattle  to  correct  for  themselves  any  abnormal  conditions  that  might  arise 
from  too  much  grass  being  eaten  when  first  turned  to  pasture. 

Fattening  Cattle  on  Grass. — Best  authorities  agree  that  if  cattle  have 
been  grain  fed  during  the  winter  with  the  idea  of  marketing  them  in  early  summer, 
it  is  best  not  to  turn  them  to  pasture  at  all.  Two  and  three  year  old  cattle  that 
have  been  wintered  largely  on  roughage  will  make  gains  on  luxuriant  pasture 
that  may  be  more  profitable  than  gains  made  in  any  other  manner.  A  lower  price 
is  usually  paid  for  grass- fat  cattle  than  for  corn- fed  cattle  and  the  character  and 
value  of  land  and  the  cost  of  producing  gains,  should  determine  the  policy  of 
utilizing  the  pasture  land.  Young  cattle  under  two  years  of  age  which  are  to  be 
marketed  for  beef  during  or  at  the  close  of  the  pasture  season,  will  require 
continuous  grain  feeding.  Older  cattle  in  fair  condition  of  flesh  can  be  marketed 
to  good  advantage  by  giving  them  a  full  grain  ration  in  addition  to  pasture  and 
turning  them  off  about  the  middle  of  July  before  the  fly  season  or  dry,  hot  weather 
comes  on. 

Corn  is  one  of  the  best  concentrates  used  in  combination  with  pasture. 
Shelled  corn  should  be  soaked  12  to  18  hours  prior  to  feeding  it  to  overcome 
its  dry  and  flinty  nature  at  this  season  of  the  year.  For  young  cattle  and  for  older 
ones  that  it  is  desirable  to  finish  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  the  corn  should 
be  fed  with  some  concentrate  like  oil  meal,  cotton  seed  meal  or  gluten  feed  rich  in 
protein.  Clover  or  alfalfa  pasture  make  the  rich  protein  feeds  less  necessary. 
Steers  fed  corn  on  pasture  should  be  followed  by  hogs  which  utilize  the  droppings 
from  the  steers  to  a  better  advantage  on  pasture  than  they  do  in  the  feed  lot. 

Fattening  Cattle  in  the  Feed  Lot. — In  corn  belt  regions  where  the  land 
is  practically  all  tillable  and  capable  of  growing  large  yields  of  corn  and  other 
feeds  adapted  for  fattening  purposes,  it  is  profitable  to  fatten  steers  in  feed  lots 
during  the  winter  months.  Corn  fed  cattle,  well  finished,  produce  beef  in  the 
largest  quantities  and  of  the  best  quality.  Steers  for  fattening  purposes  are 
purchased  usually  at  the  leading  cattle  markets  and  fed  for  periods  ranging  from 
90  to  160  days.  Much  of  the  profit  in  fattening  steers  depends  upon  the  type  and 
quality  of  steers  selected  and  one's  ability  to  buy  them  at  the  proper  time  and  at 


48 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


suitable  prices  to  insure  a  fair  margin  when  they  are  returned  to  market  in 
finished  form.  A  market  classification  of  cattle  can  be  found  in  the  market  re- 
ports of  any  reliable  live  stock  journal  which  should  always  be  consulted  carefully 
during  the  seasons  of  buying  and  selling  live  stock  of  any  class.  The  following 
classification  without  market  prices  is  submitted.  "Class"  indicates  the  use  to 
which  cattle  are  put,  and  "Grade"  the  quality  or  degree  of  fitness  of  the  animal  in 
a  given  class. 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  CATTLE. 


Classes 

Grades 

Classes 

Grades 

Beef  Cattle. 

Prime  Steers 
Choice  Steers 
Good  Steers 
Common  Rough  Steers 

Stockers 
and 
Feeders.  .  . 

Fancy  Selected  Feeders 
Choice  Feeders 
Good  Feeders 
Medium  Feeders 
Common  Feeders 
Inferior  Feeders 
Feeder  Bulls 
Fancy  Selected  Yearling  Stockers 
Choice  Yearling  Stockers 
Good  Yearling  Stockers 
Medium  Yearling  Stockers 
Common  Yearling  Stockers 
Inferior  Yearling  Stockers 
Good  Stock  Heifers 
Medium  Stock  Heifers 
Common  Stock  Heifers 

Prime  Heifers 
Choice  Heifers 
Good  Heifers 
Medium  Heifers 

Butcher 
Stock  

Prime  Cows 
Choice  Cows 
Good  Cows 
Medium  Cows 

Common  Rough  Steers 
Common  Bulls 
Good  Bulls 
Medium  Bulls 

Veal  Calves  . 

Choice 
Good 
Medium 
Common 

Cutters  and 
Canners  .  . 

Good  Cutters 
Medium  Cutters 
Common  Cutters  and  Good  Can- 
ners 
Medium  Canners 
[nferior  Canners 
Bologna  Bulls 

Sub-Classes  . 

Texas  and  Western  Range  Cattle 
Distillers 

Miscel- 
laneous.. . 

Baby  Beef 
Export  Cattle 
Shipping  Steers 
Dressed  Beef  Cattle 

Stags 

STAGS. 

The  Most  Desirable  Type  of  Beef  Cattle. — What  are  classified  on  the 
general  market  as  beef  cattle,  constitutes  the  most  desirable  type  of  cattle  on  the 
market.  In  general  this  type  includes  animals  that  are  blocky  in  form,  with  a 
short,  broad  head,  a  short  neck,  and  a  broad,  deep,  low  set  body  with  straight 
and  parallel  top  and  bottom  lines.  In  finished  form  there  is  a  thickness  and 
mellowness  of  flesh  over  the  entire  body,  indicating  a  finished  condition.  Beef 
cattle  have  the  characteristic  disposition  of  taking  on  fat  over  the  entire  body,  more 
or  less  of  which  is  mixed  with  muscle  fibers  to  produce  the  rich,  marble  con- 
dition so  much  appreciated  in  a  good  carcass  of  beef.  The  steer  that  is  compact, 
with  a  short,  broad  back,  wide  top  line,  deep,  thick  thighs,  and  a  full  twist,  not 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  49 

only  produces  the  best  quality  of  beef,  but  the  highest  percentage  of  dressed 
carcass  and  commands  the  highest  market  price.  It  requires  experience  to 
feed  and  finish  steers  that  will  top  the  market  and  at  the  same  time  be  most 
profitable.  Not  infrequently  does  the  feeder  of  beef  cattle  realize  greater  profits 
on  feeding  cattle  of  the  commoner  grades  and  classes  than  he  does  on  feeding 
better  cattle. 

Advantages  In  Finished  Cattle. — There  are  three  reasons  for  feeding 
and  producing  a  finished  condition  of  the  steer.  It  increases  the  percentage  of 
dressed  carcass,  renders  the  beef  most  tender  and  juicy  and  insures  its  curing 
properly  when  hung  in  the  cooler.  The  evidences  of  steers  being  finished  in 
the  feed  lot  are  fullness  at  the  throat,  well  covered  shoulder  points,  thickness 
of  the  flank  and  a  full  purse  or  scrotum.  When  cattle  approach  this  condition, 
quotations  should  be  watched  and  the  cattle  disposed  of  at  the  most  opportune 
time.  The  amount  of  feed  required  for  producing  a  pound  of  beef  increases  as 
the  feeding  period  advances  and  one  cannot  afford  to  feed  finished  cattle  except 
to  secure  an  advance  in  the  market  price. 

The  Feeding  Margin. — The  difference  between  the  cost  price  per  100  Ibs. 
and  the  selling  price  per  100  Ibs.  is  known  as  the  margin.  Without  a  sufficient 
margin  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  profit  in  fattening  steers  or  to  secure  market 
prices  for  feed  supplied  to  them.  Ordinarily  800  to  l,ooo  Ibs.  of  concentrated 
feed  is  necessary  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  meat.  The  cost  of  producing  gains  at 
this  rate,  makes  it  evident  that  in  order  to  secure  a  profit,  there  must  be  a  con- 
siderable margin  between  the  cost  and  the  selling  prices.  The  following  factors 
influence  the  necessary  margin  in  fattening  cattle: 

Distance  necessary  to  ship  cattle  to  and  from  feed  lots. 
Shrinkage  in  cattle  during  shipments. 
Expenses  incident  to  buying,  selling  and  shipping. 
Losses  which  may  result  by  accident  or  disease. 
Prices  for  feeds  and  cost  of  producing  gains. 

Other  Conditions  Influencing  Margin. — The  class  of  cattle  fed  have  an 
influence  on  the  margin  required  as  does  also  the  season  of  the  year  and  the 
character  of  the  winter  months.  A  wider  margin  is  necessary  in  winter  than 
in  summer  because  the  cost  of  gains  at  this  season  is  greater.  Young  cattle 
are  fed  more  economically  than  are  mature  cattle  and  may  be  fed  on  nar- 
rower margins. 

A  uniformly  good  class  of  feeder  steers  can  be  fed  on  a  narrower  mar- 
gin than  a  poorer  class  of  feeders,  when  both  classes  are  relatively  high.  In 
some  instances,  however,  poor  feeders  are  relatively  lower  in  price  than  the 
difference  between  their  quality  and  the  quality  of  a  better  class  of  feeders 
would  warrant,  and  under  such  conditions  one  may  sometimes  secure  a  bet- 
ter margin  and  greater  profits  in  feeding  such  classes.  Margin  must  neces- 
sarily increase  as  the  length  of  the  feeding  period  and  the  cost  of  feeding 
increases.  The  heavier  the  cattle  fed  the  less  the  margin  must  necessarily 
be.  It  is  evident  that  the  necessary  margin  will  vary  under  different  condi- 
tions of  time  and  circumstance.  By  taking  into  account  all  the  items  of  cost 


50  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

and  probable  loss  in  buying  and  feeding  a  lot  of  steers,  one  can  calculate  the 
approximate  margin  necessary  to  break  even  or  make  a  given  profit.  When 
cattle  'are  finished  or  tKe  feeding  period  is  about  to  close,  one  should  study 
the  market  situation  and  endeavor  to  sell  in  a  manner  and  at  a  time  to  make 
the  actual  margin,  which  is  the  difference  between  the  cost  price  and  the 
selling  price,  as  great  as  possible. 

Suitable  Rations  for  Fattening  Steers. — Rations  to  be  most  satisfactory 
for  fattening  steers  must  conform  to  the  age  of  steers  and  their  ability  to 
make  the  best  use  of  them,  to  the  condition  of  the  cattle  and  the  length  of  the 
period  they  are  to  be  fed,  to  the  stage  of  the  feeding  period  and  to  the  prices 
for  cattle  and  feed.  The  tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to  fatten  cattle  be- 
fore they  are  full  grown  and  take  advantage  of  the  more  economical  gains 
that  occur  with  the  younger  classes  of  cattle.  This  is  a  good  tendency  where 
cattle  are  grown  on  valuable  land  and  quick  returns  on  the  investment  are 
required.  The  ration  in  this  instance  must  be  suitable  for  growing  and  fat- 
tening, otherwise  a  proper  finish  will  not  be  secured.  Legume  hay  and  ni- 
trogenous concentrates,  together  with  a  liberal  supply  of  fattening  concen- 
trates are  required.  Young  cattle  do  not  have  the  strength  to  eat  and  mas- 
ticate shock  and  ear  corn  that  older  cattle  have,  and  greater  preparation  of 
the  ration  like  crushing,  chopping  or  grinding  the  corn  is  necessary. 

Cattle  that  are  thin  may  be  profitably  fed  for  longer  periods  than  cattle 
in  good  flesh,  during  the  first  part  of  which  the  ration  may  consist  of  good 
roughages  that  will  be  reduced  as  concentrated  feed  takes  its  place  with 
the  advance  of  the  period.  The  cattle  in  this  instance  should  make  gains  that 
will  produce  the  desired  finish  at  the  time  it  is  aimed  to  dispose  of  them. 
Heavy  cattle  as  a  rule  should  be  fed  a  heavy  allowance  of  concentrates  that 
will  produce  a  finish,  to  satisfy  the  market  demands  in  as  short  a  period  as 
possible. 

The  ration  for  fattening  cattle  should  become  heavier  as  the  feeding 
period  advances.  Corn  and  a  liberal  allowance  of  legume  hay  may  be  suf- 
ficient to  make  good  gains  in  the  early  part  of  the  feeding  of  comparatively 
thin  steers.  With  the  advance  of  the  period,  however,  and  as  the  hay  is  re- 
duced and  the  corn  increased,  a  nitrogenous  concentrate  like  cotton  seed, 
gluten  feed  or  oil  meal  will  prove  profitable. 

When  the  market  is  slow  and  does  not. pay  a  premium  for  highly  finished 
steers  or  the  market  price  of  feed  and  cattle  is  not  such  as  to  warrant  fair 
profits  in  feeding,  one  should  regulate  the  ration  accordingly. 

Silage  from  well  matured  corn  is  fast  becoming  a  popular  feed  for  fat- 
tening steers.  The  cost  of  producing  silage  may  be  considerably  more  than 
feeding  shocked  corn,  but  the  amount  of  fodder  saved  and  the  results  secured 
may  be  regarded  sufficient  to  more  than  offset  all  of  the  extra  labor.  The 
shrinkage  on  steers  fed  corn  silage  at  time  of  marketing  has  been  one  of  the 
principal  objections  to  silage  as  part  of  the  ration.  This  objection,  how- 
ever, is  largely  overcome  by  substituting  dry  feed  in  place  of  the  silage  a 
few  days  prior  to  shipping.  Grass  in  abundance  and  more  or  less  shelled  corn 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  51 

constitute  suitable  summer  feed  for  fattening-  steers.  The  corn  should  be 
soaked  12  to  18  hours  and  barrels  or  boxes  in  which  it  is  soaked  kept  clean 
and  sweet. 

The  following  average  rations  will  be  suggestive  in  preparing  rations 
for  steers  in  the  feed  lot  and  for  securing  the  most  satisfactory  results : 

Shocked  corn  15      Ibs. 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hay 7      Ibs. 

Ear  corn   13      Ibs. 

Oil  meal,  cotton  seed  meal  or  gluten \]/2  Ibs. 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hay 9      Ibs. 

Shelled   corn    16      Ibs. 

Gluten  feed,  oil  meal  or  cotton  seed  meal 3      Ibs. 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hay 8      Ibs. 

Corn  and  cob  meal 20     Ibs. 

Gluten  feed,  oil  meal  or  cotton  seed  meal.  . . . .. 3      Ibs. 

Getting  Steers  on  Full  Feed. — The  amount  of  feed  supplied  all  steers 
must  be  comparatively  small  when  cattle  are  first  put  into  the  feed  lot  and 
the  amount  gradually  increased  until  they  are  on  full  feed.  Mumford  of  Illi- 
nois recommends  that  cattle  be  given  all  the  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  they  will 
eat  and  in  addition  2  Ibs.  of  corn  per  steer  per  day  to  start  with.  The  amount 
of  grain  can  be  increased  one  pound  daily  until  10  Ibs.  per  head  daily  is 
reached.  After  three  days  increase  the  daily  ration  one  pound  again  until 
17  Ibs.  is  fed;  15  days  later  this  amount  can  be  increased  to  22  Ibs.  Cattle 
getting  from  12  to  15  Ibs.  of  corn  daily  should  have  12  Ibs.  of  clover  or  al- 
falfa hay  per  100  Ibs.  of  live  weight.  As  the  amount  of  grain  increases  the 
hay  should  be  reduced  to  about  one-fourth  of  the  ration.-  The  length  of  the 
feeding  period  should  determine  how  rapidly  the  ration  is  increased  from 
day  to  day.  Where  .the  feeding  period  is  to  be  180  days,  thirty  days  to  six 
weeks  should  elapse  before  the  cattle  are  on  full  feed.  Judgment  on  the  part 
of  the  feeder  in  watching  steers  consume  the  feed  from  day  to  day  and  in 
watching  the  condition  of  the  bowels  should  largely  govern  the  amount  of 
feed  supplied. 

Use  of  the  Self-Feeder. — The  use  of  the  self-feeder  offers  two  advan- 
tages, it  economizes  labor  and  is  regarded  by  some  feeders  as  being  more 
reliable  than  a  careless  man  who  may  be  entrusted  with  the  work  of  feed- 
ing. The  self-feeder  must  be  used  judiciously,  however,  to  overcome  ob- 
jectionable features  incident  to  its  use.  Cattle  must  be  accustomed  to  their 
grain  ration  and  practically  on  full  feed  before  being  allowed  access  to  the 
self-feeder.  The  self-feeder  is  best  adapted  to  long  feeding  periods  or  where 
cattle  are  to  be  fed  liberally  from  three  to  four  months.  Watching  the  self- 
feeder  and  the  condition  of  the  cattle  in  addition  to  the  precautions  incident 
to  getting  them  onto  full  feed,  should  overcome  objections  to  its  use.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  self-feeder  may  be  used  to  advantage  from  the  start 


52  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

by  shredding  or  cutting  the  roughage  and  mingling  it  with  the  concentrated 
feed  prior  to  putting  it  into  the  self-feeder.  Under  these  conditions  cattle 
may  be  safely  turned  to  the  feeder  as  soon  as  they  are  turned  into  the  feed 
lot,  and  as  the  feeding  progresses  the  roughage  can  be  reduced  to  the  extent 
that  the  cattle  utilize  concentrates  to  the  best  advantage. 

Hogs  Should  Follow  Cattle. — It  is  unprofitable  to  feed  steers  without 
hogs  in  the  feed  lot.  Decreasing  the  cost  of  preparing  feed  is  an  item  of 
saving  in  the  steer  feeding  operation.  The  usual  manner  of  feeding  corn 
incurs  considerable  waste  unless  hogs  follow  the  steers  and  utilize  that  which 
would  otherwise  be  wasted.  Hogs  weighing  100  to  150  Ibs.  that  are  active 
and  capable  of  making  good  gains,  are  best  for  the  steer  lots.  Hogs  that 
are  too  fat  are  not  active  enough  to  serve  the  purpose.  Brood  sows  and  a 
small  class  of  hogs  are  very  likely  to  be  injured  and,  are  therefore,  unprofit- 
able. The  age  of  the  cattle  and  the  character  of  the  ration  fed  to  them,  de-' 
termines  the  amount  of  feed  available  for  the  support  of  the  hogs,  and  the 
character  of  the  feed  will  also  affect  the  gains  made  by  the  hogs. 

On  the  average  the  number  of  hogs  per  steer  in  the  feed  lot  according 
to  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  76,  should  be  as  follows  for 
rations  of  different  character,  the  steers  being  two-year-olds  and  the  hogs 
weighing  100  to  150  Ibs.: 

Snapped  ear  corn   2  to  3  hogs  per  steer 

Ear  corn   1^4  hogs  per  steer 

Shelled  corn 1  to  1J/2  hogs  per  steer 

Crushed  or  ground  corn 1-3  to  y2  hog  per  steer 

It  is  profitable  to  include  more  hogs  than  are  necessary  to  utilize  the 
waste  and  to  supply  additional  feed  to  the  extent  that  the  hogs  are  satisfied 
and  do  not  disturb  the  steers  too  much. 

Equipment  for  Cattle  Feeding. — Ordinarily  feeding  sheds  about  20  ft. 
deep  and  of  sufficient  length  to  accommodate  a  given  number  of  steers  with 
lots  or  yards  approximately  24  ft.  deep  and  feed  bunks  suitable  for  supply- 
ing grain,  constitute  the  equipment  for  fattening  steers.  It  is  advisable  to 
have  the  shed  arranged  to  offer  as  much  shelter  as  possible  from  prevailing 
winds  and  storms.  The  roughage  may  be  fed  in  racks  inside  the  yard  or 
shed  or  in  racks  located  in  yards  adjoining  the  shed  where  the  cattle  can  be 
turned.  Feed  bunks  in  which  concentrates  and  silage  are  fed,  should  be  made 
of  heavy  material.  It  is  advisable  to  so  construct  them  that  they  can  be 
moved  about  from  place  to  place  as  circumstances  necessitate.  They  should 
be  arranged  in  a  manner  to  make  feeding  most  convenient.  Having  the  feed 
lots  paved  or  the  floors  arranged  to  keep  the  droppings  where  hogs  have  the 
best  chance  to  get  them  will  be  an  advantage.  The  condition  of  many  feed- 
ing lots  is  unsatisfactory  at  seasons  of  the  year  and  in  localities  where  the 
ground  does  not  freeze  and  becomes  wet  and  muddy.  Experiments  indi- 
cate that  a  sufficient  gain  and  return  is  secured  as  a  result  of  having  the 
feed  lots  in  suitable  condition  to  justify  the  expense  of  paving  and  main- 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  53 

taining  them  in  good  condition.  Steers  in  a  muddy  condition  do  not  command 
the  best  prices  on  the  market.  Grading  the  yard  in  a  manner  to  control  the 
water  that  comes  in  contact  with  it,  will  be  helpful  and  should  be  done 
whether  the  lots  are  paved  or  not. 

General  Care  of  Fattening  Cattle. — The  operation  of  fattening  cattle 
should  not  be  regarded  as  an  easy  task.  The  feeder  has  many  details  to  keep 
in  mind.  Excitement  prevents  cattle  from  making  the  largest  gains  and  the 
feeder  should  endeavor  to  do  everything  possible  to  keep  cattle  in  a  quiet 
condition.  Successful  feeders  endeavor  to  gain  the  confidence  of  cattle  in 
charge  and  do  their  work  with  the  regularity  that  does  not  disturb  them 
from  their  usual  habits  of  eating  and  resting.  The  majority  of  cattle  feeders 
feed  cattle  grain  and  roughage  twice  a  day  in  winter  and  under  summer  con- 
ditions grain  once  a  day.  Steers  may  run  in  bunches  of  100,  although  it  may 
be  more  convenient  to  feed  and  handle  them  in  groups  of  50  which  will 
require  three  fee^d  bunks,  3  feet  wide  and  15  feet  long.  The  size  and  age  of 
the  cattle  would  affect  the  number  most  conveniently  fed  in  a  given  yard. 

Salt  and  Water  for  Fattening  Cattle. — Cattle  should  have  free  access  to 
salt,  and  pure,  clean  water  supplied  in  the  feed  lot.  Advantages  in  feeding 
dehorned  cattle  make  it  desirable  to  have  cattle  of  the  stocker  and  feeder 
types  dehorned  prior  to  being  put  into  the  feed  lot.  A  difference  of  lOc 
to  25c  per  hundredweight  is  frequently  made,  due  to  the  presence  of  horns. 
The  shrinkage  in  weight  during  shipment  is  also  less  with  dehorned  cattle 
and  as  a  rule  they  are  quieter  and  subject  to  few  bruises. 

Grooming  Fattening  Cattle. — Some  cattle  feeders  advocate  grooming 
fattening  cattle.  The  practice  is  not  generally  considered  a  necessary  one, 
however,  for  best  results.  Only  in  the  case  of  carload  lots  of  show  cattle 
can  it  be  generally  recommended.  It  is  desirable,  however,  to  have  posts 
or  other  arrangements  that  will  enable  cattle  to  rub  and  thus  groom  them- 
selves. Under  summer  conditions  fattening  cattle  may  be  protected  during 
the  heat  of  the  day  by  placing  strips  of  burlap  across  the  doorway  or  opening 
of  the  shed.  The  darkened  shed  is  undoubtedly  the  most  practical  method  of 
overcoming  the  difficulty  with  flies. 

Marketing  Cattle. — Selling  cattle  at  home  to  local  buyers  or  shipping 
them  to  packing  house  centers  are  two  ways  of  disposing  of  them.  The 
condition  of  the  market,  quality  of  the  cattle,  number  of  cattle  one  has  and 
one's  familiarity  with  market  conditions,  should  determine  which  plan  will 
be  adopted.  Selling  to  the  local  buyer  is  the  only  plan  where  one  has  only 
a  few  cattle  to  sell.  Cost  of  shipping  and  commission  charges  do  not  war- 
rant shipping  less  than  a  carload  lot.  There  is  less  risk  in  selling  to  local 
buyers  for  the  reason  that  the  home  market  is  always  steadier  than  is  the 
larger  market  and  the  expenses  are  reduced  to  the  minimum.  On  a  declin- 
ing market  it  is  well  to  sell  at  home.  To  ship  on  a  falling  market  is  unsafe 
unless  there  is  necessity  for  doing  so  and  the  home  market  is  very  unsatis- 
factory. There  is  opportunity  to  sell  to  advantage  to  the  home  buyer  when 


54  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

the  general  market  is  rising.  It  pays  the  feeder  well  to  be  well  posted  on 
market  conditions. 

If  one  has  two  or  more  cars  of  stock  in  fit  condition  to  sell  and  under- 
stands the  market  conditions,  there  is  no  reason  why  he  should  not  ship  and 
sell  on  the  market.  Selling  in  this  manner  insures  the  producer  getting  all 
the  possible  profit  that  might  go  to  the  local  buyer.  He  also  incurs  the  same 
risk  of  losing  that  is  incurred  by  the  shipper.  Shipping  and  accompanying 
stock  to  the  market  offers  advantages  in  one's  becoming  familiar  with  market 
types  and  classes  and  their  values.  To  be  on  the  market  with  cattle  enables 
one  to  come  in  contact  and  make  the  acquaintance  of  men  from  many  sections 
of  the  country  and  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  their  methods,  conditions  and 
opinions,  which  is  valuable  from  the  standpoint  of  fattening  cattle  in  the  most 
profitable  manner.  To  make  the  acquaintance  of  commission  firms  at  the 
leading  markets  also  secures  their  interest  in  one's  welfare  and  it  should  be 
understood  that  they  are  glad  to  keep  feeders  posted  accurately  on  market  con- 
ditions and  the  most  suitable  times  for  buying  and  selling  to*  the  extent  that 
it  is  possible  for  them  to  do  so. 

How  to  Ship  Fat  Cattle. — The  feed  for  fat  cattle  should  be  changed 
for  a  day  or  two  prior  to  loading  cattle  for  shipment  in  order  to  avoid  undue 
shrinkage.  Cattle  fed  silage,  grass  or  beet  pulp  are  subject  to  greater  shrinkage 
than  cattle  fed  otherwise  unless  particular  precaution  is  taken.  In  all  instances 
cattle  should  be  filled  when  loaded,  with  feed  having  as  little  moisture  in  it  as  pos- 
sible like  the  best  of  hay  and  whole  oats  if  any  grain  is  supplied-  Clay,  of  the 
Chicago  Union  Stock  Yards,  writes :  "A  steer  full  of  water  is  apt  to  have  loose 
bowels  and  show  up  badly  in  the  yards.  Properly  handled  cattle  should  arrive 
in  the  sale  pens  dry  behind  and  ready  for  a  good  fill  of  water ;  not  very  thirsty, 
but  in  good  condition  to  drink  freely.  As  to  feed  on  the  road,  nothing  excels 
corn  or  other  grains  because  it  is  easily  digested  and  does  not  fever  the  animal. 
Cattle  should  arrive  at  the  sale  yards  at  5:00  to  8:00  A.  M.,  appearing  on  the 
scene  as  near  the  later  hour  as  possible'  since  they  always  look  better  just  after 
they  have  been  fed  and  watered." 

BABY  BEEF  PRODUCTION. 

Farms  that  are  worked  intensively  on  which  beef  cattle  are  maintained  have  in 
many  instances  adopted  the  practice  of  producing  baby  beef.  Cattle  falling  within 
this  classification  are  from  one  to  two  years  of  age,  and  ordinarily  weigh  about 
1,000  Ibs.  Only  well  bred  beef  cattle  capable  of  producing  calves  of  quality  and 
natural  beef  tendencies  are  adapted  to  the  production  of  this  class  of  cattle. 
Breeding  high  grade  and  cross-bred  animals  of  beef  type  may  be  regarded 
excellent  for  baby  beef  production.  Beef  cows  that  tend  to  produce  large 
quantities  of  milk  add  much  to  the  initial  growth  and  quality  of  baby  beeves. 

Mumford  in  writing  on  the  subject,  states  that  profitable  baby  beef  production 
requires  experience,  judgment  and  skill  of  a  high  order  and  that  it  is  a  mistake 
for  the  inexperienced  to  dip  heavily  into  this  enterprise. 

Successful  producers  endeavor  to  keep  the  calf  in  the  milk  fed  bloom  until 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION 


55 


it  is  marketed.  Calves  should  be  accustomed  to  grain  before  they  are  weaned  and 
must  be  fed  continuously  on  rations  that  will  prevent  shrinkage  at  any  time. 
Any  shrinkage  in  baby  beef  production  is  expensive  and  lengthens  the  time 
required  to  mature  them.  Good  roughage  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  silage 
during  the  winter  months  and  abundant  pasture  during  the 'summer,  together 
with  corn,  oil  meal  and  other  grains  to  give  variety,  where  prices  permit  their 
being  used,  should  be  supplied  in  a  manner  to  keep  the  calves  in  a  fat  condition 
as  they  develop.  Liberal  feeding  is  necessary  for  the  reason  that  calves  tend 
to  grow  rather  than  fatten.  Heifer  calves  tend  to  fatten  more  quickly  than 
steer  calves. 


A  type  and  finish  desirable  in  baby  beef  production. 

Male  calves  should  be  castrated  before  they  are  weaned  and  this  may  be  done 
when  the  calf  is  less  than  one  week  old.  Vaccination  to  prevent  blackleg  is 
recommended.  It  is  seldom  possible  to  get  spring  calves  ready  for  the  baby 
beef  market  before  July  of  the  second  summer.  More  frequently  they  are  not 
marketed  until  the  fall  when  they  are  approximately  18  months  of  age. 

General  Care  of  the  Breeding  Beef  Herd.— Cows  of  the  breeding  beef 
herd  should  be  cared  for  in  a  manner  to  maintain  them  in  the  most  economical 
manner  and  at  the  same  time  keep  them  in  a  condition  to  produce  strong,  vigor- 
ous calves  that  will  develop  rapidly  while  getting  the  benefit  of  nursing  their 
dams.  Cows  may  be  wintered  at  a  more  reasonable  cost  if  bred  to  drop  their 
calves  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  This  is  also  regarded  the  best  time  to  have 
the  calves  dropped  for  the  production  of  baby  beef  steers  to  be  finished  off  at 
two  years  of  age. 

Where  pasture  is  available  it  is  more  economical  to  secure  growth  and  gains 
on  the  part  of  calves  during  the  summer  than  during  the  winter.  Beef  cows  will 


56  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

also  produce  more  milk  during  the  summer  season  with  which  to  give  the  calf 
the  best  start  in  its  development.  In  the  case  of  cows  that  are  milked  and  calves 
that  are  hand  raised  on  more  or  less  skim  milk,  there  is  undoubtedly  more  profit 
in  having  cows  freshen  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  In  any  event  cows  should  be  bred 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  calves  of  the  herd  will  be  as  nearly  uniform  in  age 
as  possible.  The  breeding  herd  should  be  culled  from  time  to  time  of  cows  that 
do  not  possess  the  size  and  ability  to  produce  calves  of  the  most  desirable  type 
and  character  for  beef  production. 

Feeding  the  Breeding  Herd. — Beef  cows  that  have  access  to  good  pasture 
will  require  little  attention  during  the  pasture  season.  Where  pastures  become 
short  to  affect  the  milk  flow  of  the  cow  or  cause  her  to  seriously  reduce  in 
flesh,  it  is  best  to  supplement  the  pasture  with  silage,  clover  or  alfalfa  hay, 
soiling  crops  or  concentrated  feeds.  An  abundance  of  pure,  fresh  water,  shade 
and  salt  should  be  provided. 

In  winter  the  cows  should  be  fed  in  a  manner  to  keep  them  in  a  thrifty, 
normal  condition  of  flesh.  No  more  grain  should  be  fed  than  is  necessary. 
A  ration  of  corn  silage  and  good  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  under  ordinary  conditions 
will  be  highly  satisfactory.  A  ration  composed  of  18  to  20  Ibs.  corn  silage,  4 
Ibs.  clover  hay  and  cheaper  roughage  like  straw,  corn  stover,  should  provide  ample 
feed  for  keeping  cows  in  good  condition  and  gaining  1  to  1^4  Ibs.  per  day. 
Where  silage  is  not  available,  shocked  corn  and  clover  hay  together  with 
straw  may  be  fed  to  advantage.  Where  cheaper  and  lower  roughages  are 
utilized  enough  grain  should  be  supplied  to  keep  cows  in  a  thrifty  condition. 

Methods  of  Rearing  Beef  Calves. — Beef  calves  may  be  reared  in  one  of 
three  following  ways : 

On  farms  where  cattle  are  raised  primarily  for  beef  production,  it  is 
customary  to  allow  calves  to  run  with  their  dams  until  six  or  eight  months  of 
age. 

Calves  should  be  taught  to  eat  grain  before  being  weaned  to  prevent  shrinkage 
at  weaning  time.  A  good  grain  mixture  for  beef  calves  consists  of  corn  meal 
50  parts,  ground  oats  30  parts,  wheat  bran  20  parts.  In  addition  to  this  grain 
mixture  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  should  be  fed  in  such  quantities  as  calves  will 
clean  up  without  waste.  Cotton  seed  meal  is  not  a  good  feed  for  young  calves. 
Daily  gains  of  \l/2  to  2  Ibs.  should  be  expected. 

In  some  instances  half  the  cows  of  the  herd  are  hand  milked  and  the  other 
half  are  required  to  nurse  two  calves.  Under  this  system  it  is  best  to  select  the 
easy  and  heavy  milkers  for  hand  milking  and  let  the  calves  nurse  those  that 
are  indifferent.  Additional  calves  may  be  bought  if  necessary  to  have  all  cows 
nurse- two  calves.  Where  two  calves  nurse  one  cow  it  is  well  to  have  a  shady  pad- 
dock or  stable  in  which  calves  spend  the  day  and  are  turned  with  cows  to  nurse 
twice  daily.  Grain  and  other  feeds  should  be  supplied  in  such  quantities  as  to 
keep  them  growing  and  in  a  good  condition  of  flesh  at  all  times.  In  some  in- 
stances beef  calves  are  raised  by  hand  and  the  cows  hand  milked  throughout  their 
lactation  periods.  In  such  instances  the  calf  is  left  with  the  dam  for  only  two  to 
four  days  and  raised  practically  in  the  same  manner  with  all  of  the  precautions 
heretofore  discussed  with  reference  to  raising  dairy  calves. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION 
RINGING  THE  BULL 


Act  1.     Snub   the   bull's   head   securely   to   a 
post,  letting  a  second  man  hold  the  rope  in 
order  to  loosen  it  should  the  bull  throw  him- 
self, and  insert  a  trocar  and  canula. 


Act  2.  Withdraw  the  trocar  and  insert 
ring  by  letting  open  end  follow  the  can- 
ula as  it  is  withdrawn. 


Act  3.    When  the   ring  has  been  closed  and 

secured    file  off  any   rough   points   about  the 

joints  of  the  ring  to  prevent  their  irritating 

the  nose. 


58 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Throwing  the  bull.     Note  adjustment  of  rope  and  loops  that  tighten  naturally  at  all  points 

about  the  body  as  the  rope  is  drawn.     The  rope  should  be  secured  about  the  horns  or  to  a 

halter  in  the  case  of  a  polled  animal  in  a  manner  to  insure  against  its  slipping. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTION  59 

A  sufficient  amount  of  grain  of  the  mixture  suggested  for  beef  calves  should 
be  fed  to  keep  the  calf  in  a  thrifty,  growing  and  well  fleshed  condition.  The 
amount  of  grain  fed  a  beef  calf  varies  from  a  handful  up  to  4  or  5  Ibs.  at  six 
months  of  age. 

Heifers  that  are  to  be  retained  for  the  breeding  herd  should  be  bred  at  the 
age  of  18  to  20  months  of  age. 

SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  BULLS. 

Selection  of  Bulls. — In  the  dairy  or  the  beef  herd  there  is  no  more  im- 
portant duty  than  the  selection,  care  and  management  of  bulls  suitable  to  head 
the  .herd.  In  all  instances  the  bull  should  be  a  pure  bred,  registered  animal  with 
ancestors  representing  the  leading  families  and  the  most  typical  individuals  of 
the  breed.  In  no  instance  can  a  breeder  of  cattle  feel  himself  justified  in  using  a 
bull  of  common  or  indiscriminate  breeding.  Beef  bulls  should  be  the  progeny  of 
animals  that  excel  in  the  production  of  beef  and  dairy  bulls  the  progeny  of  cat- 
tle that  excel  in  the  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat.  Improvement  in  the 
beef  and  dairy  cattle  interests  of  the  country  can  be  accomplished  most  econom- 
ically through  the  selection  of  choice  bulls. 

Management  of  Bulls. — Under  some  conditions  it  may  be  advisable  to 
allow  the  bull  to  run  with  the  cows.  In  most  instances,  however,  it  is  more  de- 
sirable and 'much  better  to  keep  the  bull  by  himself  in  quarters  especially  pro- 
vided for  him.  Such  quarters  should  consist  of  a  strong  pen  and  paddock  in 
which  he  can  be  comfortably  housed  and  permitted  to  exercise,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  handled  without  incurring  the  danger  of  his  doing  injury  to  attendants 
in  charge.  Bulls  should  be  kept  in  a  thrifty  condition-  but  not  in  high  condition 
of  flesh  where  best  results  in  using  them  are  to  be  secured.  An  abundance  of 
exercise  and  a  moderate  ration  of  legume  hay,  grain  during  the  breeding  season 
and  a  small  amount  of  silage  not  to  exceed  10  to  15  Ibs.  should  keep  the  bull  in 
suitable  condition  for  doing  best  service. 

The  number  of  cows  to  which  the  bull  should  be  bred  during  the  year  will 
depend  upon  his  age,  condition  and  treatment,  together  with  the  distribution  of 
the  cows  bred  to  him.  The  bull  should  not  be  used  for  service  until  a  year 
old.  The  number  of  cows  bred  to  him  should  vary  from  12  to  15  during  the  time 
he  is  a  year  old  to  30  to  60  a  year  when  he  is  full  age. 

Frequently  the  feet  of  a  mature  bull  get  into  a  condition  that  renders  it  dif- 
ficult for  him  to  do  service.  A  bull's  feet  are  best  trimmed  by  throwing  him  in 
a  manner  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  cut  on  opposite  page.  Bulls  that 
are  inclined  to  be  vicious  may  be  rendered  manageable  by  throwing  them 
in  a  similar  manner.  At  the  age  of  8  to  10  months  a  ring  should  be  inserted 
in  the  nose  of  the  bull  in  order  to  handle  and  control  him  without  difficulty. 
Mature  bulls  should  be  handled  with  the  staff  especially  dairy  bulls  that 
are  more  nervous  and  treacherous  than  beef  bulls.  Handling  and  man- 
aging the  bull  in  a  manner  to  never  allow -him  to  realize  his  strength  and 
possibility  of  gaining  mastery  over  his  attendant,  should  be  practiced  to 
the  fullest  extent.  The  disposition  of  bulls  is  in  most  instances  a  reflection 
of  mismanagement  at  some  time  in  their  development. 


60  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

The  greatest  mismanagement  on  the  part  of  many  owners  of  bulls  is  in 
disposing  of  them  to  the  butcher  before  their  merits  as  sires  have  been  proven. 
The  most  valuable  bulls  are  those  that  have  proved  themselves  capable  of  siring 
most  satisfactory  calves.  Prepotency  or  that  power  of  a  bull  to  get  calves  of 
uniform,  excellent  type  and  character  is  rare  and  for  this  reason  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  preserve  sires  that  have  proved  themselves  valuable  in  this 
respect. 


A  GUIDE  TO  DISEASES  OF  STOCK 

In  this  department  the  general  symptoms  are  alphabetically  arranged  so 
the  reader  may  easily  determine  what  is  troubling  his  stock.  The  general 
symptoms  of  the  diseases  of  each  kind  of  stock  are  placed  just  before  the 
treatment  of  those  diseases. 

How  to  Use  This  Guide. — An  animal  cannot  talk  to  tell  you  what  the 
trouble  is  but  he  acts  and  makes  signs  peculiar  to  his  ailment.  To  use  this 
guide  one  only  has  to  observe  the  actions  and  appearance  of  a  sick  animal, 
notice  any  particular  symptom  and  find  it  in  its  proper  place.  When  he  looks 
up  that  symptom  he  will  find  the  other  symptoms  of  the  disease.  He  can 
then  pick  out  the  group  which  suits  the  particular  case.  This  being  found 
he  sees  the  disease  indicated  and  can  then  look  it  up  in  the  main  department. 

Explanation. — The  subjects  in  this  department  are  arranged  in  alpha- 
betical order  so  as  to  help  the  reader  find  what  he  is  looking  for  without  even 
turning  to  the  index.  However,  a  complete  index  will  be  found  at  the  back 
of  the  book. 


61 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE. 

(GENERAL  SYMPTOMS.) 

Back  arched;  belly  greatly  enlarged  especially  on  left  flank;  moves, slowly ; 
breathes  with  difficulty.— Bloat,  Page  76. 

Back  arched;  quick  breathing;  fast  pulse;  sweating;  poor  appetite;  colicky 
pains;  high  fever;  frequent  but  scanty  passage  of  urine  that  is  dark  and 
thick ;  moves  hind  quarters  with  difficulty. — Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys, 
Page  89. 

Back  arched ;  stands  alone ;  moves  slowly  with  a  wabbling  gait ;  kicking  to- 
wards belly;  switching  tail;  as  the  disease  develops  there  is  severe  pain 
and  delirium;  moaning;  bellowing. — Cornstalk  Disease,  Page  81. 

Back  arched ;  tail  elevated ;  bowels  irregular ;  milk  flow  stops ;  breath  offen- 
sive ;  manure  streaked  with  blood ;  straining  severely ;  high  fever ;  walk- 
ing slowly ;  great  thirst ;  loss  of  appetite. — Dysentery,  Page  82. 

Back  has  small  round  lumps  on  it  from  which  a  grub  can  be  squeezed. — 
Grubs  in  the  Back,  Page  86. 

Belly  greatly  enlarged  especially  in  left  flank ;  moves  slowly ;  breathes  with 
difficulty;  back  arched. — Bloat,  Page  76, 

Blisters  following  red  swollen  parts ;  blisters  break  causing  severe  lameness ; 
inclination  to  lie  down ;  chill  followed  by  fever. — Foot  and  Mouth  Disease, 
Page  84. 

Blisters  on  skin  which  leave  the  skin  moist  with  their  contents;  sometimes 
swelling  and  large  sores ;  severe  itching. — Eczema,  Page  82. 

Blood  in  Milk.— Bloody  Milk,  Page  79. 

Blood  in  milk;  dullness;  fever;  shivering;  pus  coming  to  surface  of  udder;  in 
some  cases  there  is  no  pus  but  udder  gets  hard ;  part  of  udder  may  fall 
off  in  severe  cases;  udder  hot,  swollen  and  tender. — Garget, 

Bloody,  foul  smelling  fluid  runs  out  of  swelling  when  opened ;  lameness,  stiff- 
ness; swelling  of  affected  parts;  the  swellings  emit  a  crackling  sound 
when  rubbed  ;  high  fever ;  poor  appetite. — Anthrax,  Page  75. 

Bowels  loose;  coughing  up  worms;  suffocating  sort  of  breathing;  cough  dry 
and  husky ;  poor  appetite. — Filaria  Bronchitis. 

Breathing  difficult ;  back  arched  ;  belly  greatly  enlarged  especially  in  left  flank  ; 
moves  slowly. — Bloat,  Page  76. 

Breathing  difficult ;  bowels  loose ;  coughing  up  worms ;  cough  dry  and  husky ; 
poor  appetite. — Filaria  Bronchitis. 

Breathing  fast  and  hard ;  loss  of  appetite ;  fever ;  sometimes  delirium. — Blood 
Poisoning,  Page  78. 

Breathing  quickened ;  fever ;  quick  pulse ;  standing  with  elbows  turned  out ; 
well  marked  crease  extending  from  the  flank  to  the  back  of  the  elbow; 

62 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  63 

coughing ;  pointing  nose  toward  the  side ;  if  the  ribs  are  tapped  over  the 

chest  a  clear  hollow  sound  is  heard. — Pleurisy,  Page  94. 
Breathing  quickened ;  rapid  pulse ;  rattling  sound  heard  in  lungs  when  ear  is 

placed  to  chest ;  lying  down ;  chill  followed  by  fever  which  gradually  in- 
creases for  a  time. — Pneumonia,  Page  95. 
Chill  followed  by  fever ;  affected  parts  red  and  swollen ;  followed  by  blisters 

which  burst  and  cause  severe  lameness ;  inclination  to  lie  down. — Foot 

and  Mouth  Disease,  Page  84. 

Chill  followed  by  fever;  dullness;  discharge  of  mucus  from  nostrils  that  be- 
comes pus-like  ;  constipation. — Catarrh,  Page  80. 
Chill  followed  by  fever ;  pulse  full  and  rapid ;  cough  short,  dry  and  husky  ; 

constipation ;  poor  appetite. — Bronchitis,  Page  79. 
Chill   followed   by   fever   which   increases   gradually   for   a   time ;   quickened 

breathing;  rapid  pulse;  rattling  sound  heard  in  lungs  when  ear  is  placed 

to  chest ;  lying  down. — Pneumonia,  Page  95. 
Colicky  pains ;  high  fever ;  frequent  but  scanty  passage  of  urine  which  is  dark 

and    thick ;   moves    hind    quarters    with    difficulty ;    arched    back ;    quick 

breathing;   fast  pulse;   sweating;   poor   appetite. — Inflammation   of   the 

Kidneys,  Page  89. 
Constipation  following  diarrhea ;  legs  and  ears  cold ;  nose  dry  and  hot ;  fever ; 

pulse  fast  and  full. — Inflammation  of  the  Stomach,  Page  89. 
Cough   dry   and   husky ;   poor  appetite ;   looseness   of   bowels ;    coughing   up 

worms;  suffocating  sort  of  breathing. — Filaria  Bronchitis. 
Cough  dry  and  persistent ;  diarrhea ;  animals  reduced  to  skin  and  bones ;  poor 

appetite ;  eyes  lusterless. — Tuberculosis,  Page  98. 
Cough  short,  dry  and  husky ;  constipation ;  poor  appetite. — Bronchitis,  Page 

79. 
Crackling  emitted  from  swellings  when  rubbed ;  high  fever ;  poor  appetite. 

When  one  of  the  swellings  are  opened  a  foul  smelling,  bloody  fluid  runs 

out ;  lameness ;   stiffness ;   swellings   on  affected  parts. — Anthrax,   Page 

75. 
Crease  well  marked  from  the  flank  to  back  of  elbow;  coughing;  pointing  nose 

toward  side ;  if  the  ribs  are  tapped  over  the  chest  a  clear  hollow  sound  is 

heard ;  quickened  breathing ;  fever ;  quick  pulse ;  standing  with  elbows 

turned  out. — Pleurisy,  Page  94. 
Crusty  patches  on  head  and  neck,  under  which  a  pus-like  fluid  forms;  severe 

irritations  and  itching. — Ring  Worm,  Page  95. 
Diarrhea;  animal  reduced  to  skin  and  bones;  poor  appetite;  lusterless  eyes; 

some  coughing. — Tuberculosis,  Page  98. 
Diarrhea  followed  by  constipation;  legs  cold;  ears  cold;  nose  dry  and  hot; 

fever ;  pulse  fast  and  full. — Inflammation  of  the  Stomach,  Page  89. 
Delirium;  breathing  fast  and  hard;  loss  of  appetite;  fever.— Blood  Poisoning, 

Page  78. 


64  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Ears  and  legs  cold;  nose  hot  and  dry;  fever;  pulse  fast  and  full;  diarrhea  fol- 
lowed by  constipation. — Inflammation  of  the  Stomach,  Page  89. 

Elbows  turned  out  when  standing;  well  marked  crease  extending  from  flank 
to  back  part  of  elbow ;  coughing ;  pointing  nose  toward  the  side ;  if  the 
ribs  are  tapped  over  the  chest  a  clear  hollow  sound  is  heard. — Pleurisy, 
Page  94. 

Eyes  inflamed  and  swollen ;  pulse  full ;  bowels  constipated ;  tips  of  horns  and 
extremities  cold;  sneezing;  fever;  cough;  thin,  watery  discharge  from 
nose,  but  this  soon  thickens. — Catarrh,  Page  80. 

Eyes  lusterless;  some  coughing;  diarrhea;  animals  reduced  to  skin  and  bones; 
poor  appetite. — Tuberculosis,  Page  98. 

Eyes,  mouth  and  nostrils  reddened;  muzzle  and  mouth  dry;  urine  colored; 
v  pressure  on  the  abdomen  causes  pain;  falling  down  and  moaning;  manure 
covered  with  slime;  flanks  heave;  gait  staggering. — Inflammation  of  the 
Bowels,  Page  89. 

Eyes  red  and  inflamed ;  lids  swollen  sometimes ;  profuse  discharge  of  tears 
and  mucus ;  strong  light  irritating. — Sore  Eyes,  Page  96. 

Eyes  very  red  with  thick  discharge;  head  hangs;  loss  of  appetite;  weakness; 
constipation ;  fever ;  watery  discharge  from  nose ;  throat  sore. — Pink  Eye, 
Page  94. 

Falling  down  and  moaning;  manure  covered  with  slime  and  often  streaked 
with  blood;  flanks  heave;  gait  staggering;  nostrils,  mouth  and  eyes  are 
reddened ;  muzzle  and  mouth  dry ;  urine  colored ;  pressure  on  abdomen 
causes  pain. — Inflammation  of  the  Bowels,  Page  89. 

Falling  in  partially  unconscious  condition  after  staggering;  constipation; 
scanty  urine ;  uneasiness ;  poor  appetite ;  lessened  secretions  of  milk. — 
Milk  Fever,  Page  93. 

Falling  unconscious;  breathing  slow;  pulse  weak  and  irregular;  stopping; 
panting  violently. — Sunstroke,  Page  97. 

Fear  of  imaginary  objects;  fits  or  crazy  spells  especially  when  warm;  head 
trembles  violently ;  sluggishness ;  difficult  locomotion ;  almost  impossible 
to  get  up  after  lying  down. — Loco  Disease,  Page  92. 

Fits  or  crazy  spells  especially  when  warm ;  head  trembles  violently ;  sluggish- 
ness ;  difficult  locomotion ;  almost  impossible  to  get  up  after  lying  down ; 
fear  of  imaginary  objects. — Loco  Disease,  Page  92. 

Flank  drum-like ;  belly  greatly  enlarged ;  moves  slowly ;  breathes  with  dif- 
ficulty; back  arched. — Bloat,  Page  76. 

Flank  swollen  and  drum-like ;  bowels  constipated ;  uneasiness ;  animal  shifts 
position ;  moaning. — Impaction  of  Rumen  or  Paunch,  Page  87. 

Flanks  heave;  gait  staggering;  nostrils,  mouth  and  eyes  reddened;  muzzle 
and  mouth  dry ;  urine  colored ;  pressure  on  the  abdomen  causes  pain ; 
falling  down  and  moaning;  manure  covered  with  slime. — Inflammation  of 
the  Bowels,  Page  89. 

Flesh  lost ;  poor  appetite,  lusterless  eyes ;  some  coughing ;  diarrhea ;  animal 
reduced  to  skin  and  bones. — Tuberculosis,  Page  98. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE  65 

Gait  wabbling;  stands  alone;  kicking  toward  belly;  switching  tail;  as  the 
disease  develops  there  is  severe  pain  and  delirium;  moaning;  bellowing. 
— Cornstalk  Disease,  Page  81. 

Head  hangs ;  loss  of  appetite ;  weakness ;  constipation ;  eyes  very  red  with  a 
thick  discharge;  temperature  rises  to  104  or  105  degrees;  watery  discharge 
from  nose ;  throat  sore. — Pink  Eye,  Page  94. 

Head  has  crusty  patches  under  which  a  pus-like  fluid  forms;  severe  irritation 
and  itching. — Ringworm,  Page  95. 

Head  thrown  from  side  to  side;  switching  tail;  kicking  abdomen  with  hind 
feet;  lying  down  often;  moaning;  grunting. — Colic,  Page  81. 

Head  trembling  violently;  sluggishness;  difficult  locomotion;  almost  impos- 
sible to  get  up  after  lying  down;  fear  of  imaginary  objects;  fits  or  crazy 
spells  especially  when  warm. — Loco  Disease,  Page  92. 

Hind  quarters  stiff ;  recurrent  fever ;  gradual  falling  away  in  spite  of  a  normal 
appetite ;  excessive  urination ;  mucous  membranes  of  the  eyes  and  mouth 
are  pale ;  extreme  weakness.  There  may  be  improvement  for  a  time  and 
then  the  same  symptoms  will  return  with  more  severity  until  the  horse 
may  die  from  weakness  or  heart  failure. — Swamp  Fever,  Page  179. 

Itching  severely ;  water  blisters  on  skin  which  leave  the  skin  moist  with  their 
contents ;  sometimes  swelling  and  large  sores. — Eczema,  Page  82. 

Kicking  abdomen  with  hind  feet;  lying  down  often;  moaning;  grunting; 
switching  tail ;  head  thrown  from  side  to  side. — Colic,  Page  81. 

Kicking  towards  belly;  switching  tail;  wabbling  gait;  stands  alone;  as  the 
disease  develops  there  is  severe  pain  and  delirium;  moaning;  bellow- 
ing.— Cornstalk  Disease,  Page  81. 

Lameness;  stiffness  swellings  on  affected  part;  these  swellings  emit  a  crack- 
ling sound  when  rubbed;  high  fever;  poor  appetite.  When  one  of  the 
swellings  are  opened  a  foul  smelling,  bloody  fluid  runs  out. — Anthrax, 
Page  75. 

Legs  and  ears  cold ;  nose  hot  and  dry ;  fever ;  pulse  fast  and  full ;  diarrhea  fol- 
lowed by  constipation. — Inflammation  of  the  Stomach,  Page  89. 

Legs  close  together;  bowels  constipated;  fever;  labored  chest  breathing; 
shivering  fits;  nervousness;  turning  head  to  sides;  muzzle  dry. — Peri- 
tonitis, Page  94. 

Legs  stocky ;  skin  may  be  scaly  and  has  eruptions ;  unthriftiness ;  coat  rough ; 
dullness. — Bad  Blood,  Page  88. 

Lids  swollen;  profuse  discharge  of  tears  and  mucus;  strong  light  irritating; 
eyes  red. — Sore  Eyes,  Page  96. 

Lumps  on  back  of  animal  from  which  a  grub  can  be  squeezed. — Grubs  in  the 
Back,  Page  86. 

Manure  covered  with  slime;  flanks  heave;  gait  staggering;  nostrils,  mouth 
and  eyes  are  reddened ;  muzzle  and  mouth  dry ;  urine  colored ;  pressure 
on  the  abdomen  causes  pain;  falling  down  and  moaning. — Inflammation 
of  the  Bowels,  Page  89. 


66  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Manure  dry  with  glazed  covering;  muzzle  dry. — Constipation,  Page  81. 
Manure  thin  and  watery;  weakness,  loss  of  flesh;  thirst,  back  arched;  milk 
dries  up. — Diarrhea,  Page  82. 

Milk  does  not  come  through  teats. — Blocked  Teats,  Page  78. 

Milk  flow  stopped;  breath  offensive;  manure  streaked  with  blood  and  very 
offensive ;  straining  severely ;  high  fever ;  walking  slowly ;  great  thirst ; 
loss  of  appetite;  back  arched;  bowels  irregular. — Dysentery,  Page  82. 

Milk  given  in  less  quantities;  constipation;  scanty  urine;  gait  staggering; 
falls  down  in  partially  unconscious  condition. — Milk  Fever,  Page  93. 

Milk  has  blood  in  it.— Bloody  Milk,  Page  79. 

Milk  is  stringy. — Stringy  Milk,  Page  97. 

Milk  streaked  with  blood  or  curdled;  dullness;  fever;  shivering;  pus  com- 
ing to  surface  of  udder;  in  some  cases  there  is  no  pus  but  the  udder  gets 
hard ;  part  of  udder  may  fall  off  in  severe  cases. — Garget,  Page  79. 

Moaning;  left  flank  hard  and  swollen;  bowels  constipated;  uneasiness;  animal 

shifts  position. — Impaction  of  the  Rumen  or  Paunch,  Page  87. 
Mouth  has  discharge  of  saliva ;  is  red  and  gives  off  a  foul  smell. — Sore  Mouth, 

Page  96. 
Mucous  rope  hanging  from  vulva;  vagina  has  yellow  sores  on  its  lining.— 

Abortion,  Page  74. 
Mucus  and  tears  discharged  from   eyes;  strong  light  irritating;  eyes  red; 

lids  swollen. — Sore  Eyes,  Page  96. 
Mucus  that  becomes  pus-like  discharged  from  nostrils ;   constipation ;  chill 

followed  by  fever ;  dullness. — Catarrh,  Page  80. 
Muzzle  dry ;  manure  dry  with  glazed  covering. — Constipation,  Page  81. 

Neck  arched;  coughing;  heavy  breathing;  poking  out  nose;  frequent  attempts 
at  swallowing. — Choking,  Page  80. 

Neck  has  crusty  patches  on,  under  which  a  pus-like  fluid  forms;  severe  ir- 
ritation and  itching. — Ringworm,  Page  95. 

Nervousness ;  turning  head  to  sides ;  muzzle  dry ;  legs  close  together ;  bowels 
constipated;  fever;  labor  breathing;  chest  breathing. — Peritonitis,  Page 
94. 

Nose  dry  and  hot;  fever;  pulse  fast  and  full;  constipation  following  diarrhea; 
legs  and  ears  cold. — Inflammation  of  the  Stomach,  Page  86. 

Nose  has  discharge  of  mucus  that  becomes  pus-like ;  constipation  ;  chill  fol- 
lowed by  fever;  dullness. — Catarrh,  Page  80. 

Nose  has  thin  watery  discharge  at  first  but  this  soon  thickens ;  eyes  inflamed 
and  swollen ;  pulse  full ;  bowels  constipated ;  tips  of  horns  and  extrem- 
ities of  limbs  cold. — Catarrh,  Page  80. 

Nose  pointed  towards  side;  breathing  quickened;  fever;  quick  pulse;  stand- 
ing with  elbows  turned  out;  well  marked  crease  extending  from  the 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  67 

flank  to  the  back  of  elbow;  coughing;  if  the  ribs  are  tapped  over  the 
chest  a  clear  hollow  sound  is  heard. — Pleurisy,  Page  94. 

Nose,  watery  discharge  from ;  throat  sore ;  eyes  very  red  with  thick  discharge ; 
head  hangs  ;  loss  of  appetite ;  weakness  ;  constipation  ;  fever. — Pink  Eye, 
Page  94. 

Pains,  colicky ;  high  fever ;  frequent  but  scanty  passage  of  urine  which  is  dark 
and  thick;  moves  hind  quarters  with  difficulty;  arched  back,  quick 
breathing;  fast  pulse;  sweating;  poor  appetite. — Inflammation  of  the 
Kidneys,  Page  89. 

Pains  come  suddenly  in  abdomen ;  animal  falls  down  and  moans ;  manure 
covered  with  slime  and  often  streaked  with  blood ;  flanks  heave ;  gait  stag- 
gering; nostrils,  mouth  and  eyes  are  reddened;  muzzle  and  mouth  dry; 
urine  colored;  pressure  on  abdomen  causes  pain. — Inflammation  of  the 
Bowels,  Page  89. 

Panting  violently;  losing  consciousness  and  falling;  breathing  slow;  pulse 
weak  and  irregular. — Sunstroke,  Page  97. 

Patches  where  there  is  no  hair,  on  head  and  neck ;  pus-like  fluid  forms  under 
these;  severe  irritation  and  itching. — Ringworm,  Page  95. 

Poking  out  nose;  frequent  attempts  at  swallowing;  saliva  runs  from  mouth; 
neck  arched ;  coughing ;  heavy  breathing. — Choking,  Page  80. 

Pimples  coming  on  body  following  a  slight  fever  of  about  a  week's  duration. 

This  fluid  soon  forms  a  scab.    The  scab  comes  off  leaving  pock  marks. — 

Cow  Pox,  Page  82. 
Protruding  of  uterus  through  vagina. — Eversion  of  the  Womb,  Page  84. 

Pulse  rapid;  rattling  sound  in  lungs  when    ear  is    placed  to    chest;  quick 

breathing ;  lying  down ;  chill  followed  by  fever  which  gradually  increases 

for  a  time. — Pneumonia,  Page  95. 
Rough  coat ;  legs  stocky ;  skin  may  be  scabby  and  has  eruptions ;  unthriftiness ; 

dullness.— Bad  Blood,  Page  88. 

Saliva  discharges ;  mouth  red ;  gives  off  foul  smell. — Sore  Mouth,  Page  96. 
Saliva  runs  from  mouth;  neck  arches;  coughing,  heavy  breathing;  poking 

nose  out ;  frequent  attempts  at  swallowing. — Choking,  Page  80. 
Scabs  forming  on  body  from  pimples  that  contained  a  watery  fluid.     The 

scabs  come  off  forming  pock  marks. — Cow  Pox,  Page  82. 
Shivering  fits;  nervousness;  turning  head  to  sides;  muzzle  dry;  legs  close 

together ;  bowels  constipated ;  fever,  breathing  labored,  chest  breathing. 

—Peritonitis,  Page  94. 
Shivering;  pus  coming  to  surface  of  udder;  in  some  cases  there  is  no  pus 

but  the  udder  gets  hard ;  part  of  the  udder  may  fall  off  in  severe  cases ; 

milk  streaked  with  blood ;  udder  hot,  swollen  and  tender. — Garget,  Page 

79. 

Skin  eruptions ;  unthrifty  condition  ;  coat  rpugh ;  dullness ;  legs  stocky ;  skin 
may  be  scaly. — Bad  Blood,  Page  88. 


68  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Sneezing;  fever;  cough;  thin,  watery  discharge  from  the  nose  at  first  but  this 
soon  thickens ;  eyes  inflamed  and  swollen ;  pulse  full ;  bowels  consti- 
pated; tips  of  horns  and  extremities  of  limbs  cold. — Catarrh,  Page  80. 

Sound — rattling  sound  heard;  breathing  quickened;  lying  down;  chill  fol- 
lowed by  fever  which  gradually  increases  for  a  time. — Pneumonia,  Page 
95. 

Staggering  and  falling  in  partially  unconscious  condition ;  uneasiness ;  poor 
appetite;  lessened  secretions  of  milk;  constipation,  scanty  urine. — Milk 
Fever,  Page  93. 

Staggering  gait;  nostrils,  mouth  and  eyes  reddened;  muzzle  and  mouth  dry; 
urine  colored;  pressure  on  abdomen  causes  pain;  falling  down  and  moan- 
ing; manure  covered  with  slime;  flanks  heave. — Inflammation  of  the 
Bowels,  Page  89. 

Stiffness;  swellings  on  affected  part;  these  swellings  emit  a  crackling  sound 
when  rubbed;  high  fever;  poor  appetite.  When  one  of  the  swellings  are 
opened  a  foul  smelling,  bloody  fluid  runs  out. — Anthrax,  Page  75. 

Stopping;  panting  violently;  losing  consciousness  and  falling,  breathing  slow; 
pulse  weak  and  irregular. — Sunstroke,  "Page  97. 

Straining  severely;  high  fever;  walking  slowly;  great  thirst;  loss  of  appetite 
back  arched;  tail  elevated;  bowels  irregular;  milk  flow  stops;  breath 
and  manure  very  offensive  and  streaked  with  blood. — Dysentery,  Page 
82. 

Swallowing  frequently  attempted;  saliva  runs  from  mouth;  neck  arched; 
coughing;  heavy  breathing;  poking  out  nose. — Choking,  Page  80. 

Sweating;  poor  appetite;  colicky  pains;  high  fever;  frequent  but  scanty 
passage  of  urine  which  is  dark  and  thick;  moves  hind  quarters  with  dif- 
ficulty ;  back  arched ;  quick  breathing ;  fast  pulse. — Inflammation  of  the 
Kidneys,  Page  89. 

Swellings  on  affected  part ;  the  swellings  emit  a  crackling  sound  when  rubbed ; 
high  fever;  poor  appetite.  When  one  of  the  swellings  are  opened,  a  foul 
smelling  bloody  fluid  runs  out ;  lameness ;  stiffness. — Anthrax,  Page  75. 

Swelling  that  is  soft,  coming  at  the  navel ;  it  is  easily  pushed  back  with  the 
finger. — Navel  Rupture,  Page  93. 

Swelling  that  is  soft  on  belly,  usually  on  the  right  side. — Ventral  Rupture, 
Page  96. 

Swollen  red  feet  followed  by  blisters  which  burst  and  cause  severe  lameness  ; 
inclination  to  lie  down ;  chill  followed  by  fever. — Foot  and  Mouth  Disease, 
Page  84. 

Tail,  switching;  head  thrown  from  side  to  side;  kicking  abdomen  with  hind 
feet;  lying  down  often;  moaning;  grunting. — Colic,  Page  81. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE  69 

Tears  and  mucus  discharged  from  eyes;  strong  light  irritating;  eyes  red;  lids 
swollen. — Sore  Eyes,  'Page  96. 

Teats  will  not  pass  milk. — Stricture  of  the  Teat. 

Teeth  loose  following  lump  on  the  jaw.     This    lump    softens,  breaks    and 

throws  out  thick  pus  containing  yellow  masses  of  germs. — Lump  Jaw, 

Page  92. 

Thirst  excessive  loss  of  appetite ;  back  arched ;  tail  elevated ;  bowels  irregu- 
lar; milk  flow  stops;  breath  and  manure  very  offensive  and  streaked 
with  blood. — Dysentery,  'Page  82. 

Ticks  that  are  very  small  found  on  the  thighs,  forelegs  and  belly;  extreme 
weakness;  high  fever;  loss  of  appetite;  bowels  constipated;  urine  highly 
colored. — Texas  Fever,  Page  97. 

Udder  tender;  swollen,  hot;  milk  streaked  with  blood  or  curdled;  dullness; 
fever;  shivering;  pus  coming  to  surface  of  udder;  in  some  cases  there  is 
no  pus  but  the  udder  gets  hard;  part  of  udder  may  fall  off  in  severe 
cases. — Garget. 

Unconscious ;  falls  down ;  breathing  slow ;  pulse  weak  and  irregular ;  stop- 
ping ;  panting  violently. — Sunstroke,  Page  97. 

Uneasiness ;  poor  appetite ;  lessened  secretions  of  milk ;  constipation ;  scanty 
urine;  gait  staggering;  falls  down  in  partially  unconscious  condition. — 
Milk  Fever,  Page  93. 

Urine  colored ;  pressure  on  abdomen  causes  pain ;  falling  down  and  moan- 
ing; manure  covered  with  slime;  flanks  heave;  gait  staggering;  nostrils, 
mouth  and  eyes  reddened ;  muzzle  and  mouth  dry. — Inflammation  of  the 
Bowels,  Page  89. 

Urine — frequent  but  scanty  passage  of  urine  that  is  dark  and  thick;  moves 
hind  quarters  with  difficulty;  arched  back;  quick  breathing;  fast  pulse; 
sweating;  poor  appetite;  colicky  pains,  high  fever. — Inflammation  of  the 
Kidneys,  Page  89. 

Urine  scanty ;  staggering  gait ;  falls  down  in  partially  unconscious  condition ; 
uneasiness ;  poor  appetite ;  lessened  secretions  of  milk. — Milk  Fever,  Page 
93. 

Urine  very  highly  colored ;  very  small  ticks  found  on  the  thigh,  forelegs  and 
belly ;  extreme  weakness ;  high  fever ;  loss  of  appetite ;  bowels  consti- 
pated.— Texas  Fever,  Page  97. 

Uterus  protruding  through  vagina. — Eversion  of  the  Womb,  "Page  84. 

Vagina  has  yellow  sores  on  its  lining;  rope  of  mucus  hanging  from  vulva. — 
Abortion,  Page  74. 

Water  blisters  on  skin  which  leave  the  skin  moist  with  their  contents ;  some- 
times swelling  and  large  sores ;  severe  itching. — Eczema,  'Page  82. 


70  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Weakness,  extreme;  high  fever;  loss  of  appetite;  bowels  constipated;  urine 
very  highly  colored;  very  small  ticks  found  on  the  thighs,  forelegs  and 
belly. — Texas  Fever,  Page  97, 

Weakness  of  hind  quarters  before  calving. — Paralysis  of  Hind  Quarters  be- 
fore Calving,  Page  94. 

Worms  coughed  up;  bowels  loose;  suffocating  sort  of  breathing;  cough  dry 
and  husky ;  poor  appetite. — Filaria  Bronchitis. 


TREATMENT   FOR   DISEASES    OF   CATTLE 


ANATOMY  OF  CATTLE. 


While  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  bony  construction  of  the  ox 
and  horse  the  bones  and  joints  are  known  by  the  same  names.  The  ribs  of 
the  horse  are  joined  to  the  breast  bone  by  cartilage  while  those  of  the  ox  are 
united  by  joints.  The  horse  has  eighteen  pair  of  ribs  and  the  ox  has  only 
thirteen  pair.  The  breast  bone  of  the  horse  is  more  round  than  that  of  the 
ox.  When  suffering  from  diseases  of  the  lungs  the  ox  usually  lies  down  and 
the  horse  stands  up,  because  he  has  more  breathing  capacity  when  standing 
and  the  ox  has  more  when  lying  down.  The  ox  has  a  divided  foot  and  of 
course  the  bones  are  different  than  those  in  the  foot  of  the  horse. 

The  Digestive  Organs. — The  digestive  organs  of  the  ox  differ  in  some 
respects  from  those  of  the  horse.  The  tongue  is  rough  and  thicker  than 
that  of  the  horse  and  is  used  to  convey  food  to  the  mouth.  The  teeth  differ 
very  much  from  those  of  the  horse.  There  are  eight  front  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw  but  none  in  the  upper  jaw,  their  place  being  filled  by  a  thick  hard  tissue 
which  answers  the  purpose  of  teeth.  This  makes  it  difficult  for  cattle  to 
thrive  on  short  pasture.  The  molars  (grinders)  are  quite  similar  to  those 
of  a  horse.  The  palate  of  the  ox  is  small  and  does  not  close  the  opening 
into  the  pharynx  as  does  that  of  the  horse.  The  pharynx  is  larger  than  in  the 
horse.  The  fibers  of  the  gullet  have  a  double  action.  While  the  animal  is 
eating,  they  carry  the  food  from  mouth  to  the  stomach ;  while  chewing  the 
cud,  they  act  in  opposite  way,  carrying  food  from  stomach  to  mouth. 

The  gullet  thus  carries  the  food  from  the  stomach  to  the  mouth  and 
back  to  the  stomach  when  masticated. 

The  stomach  of  the  ox  has  four  compartments :  the  first,  called  the 
rumen  or  paunch;  the  second,  the  reticulum;  the  third,  the  omasum,  and  the 
fourth,  the  true  stomach  or  abomasum.  The  first  three  have  an  important 
part  in  the  preparation  of  food  for  the  fourth,  or  true  stomach,  where  the 
greatest  part  of  digestion  takes  place.  The  rumen  or  paunch  is  held  in 
position  by  ligaments  which  attach  it  to  the  left  side.  It  occupies  a  large 
space  and  is  the  organ  operated  on  in  tapping  for  bloat.  The  rumen  has  two 
openings  on  the  front  side.  One  for  the  food  to  enter  and  the  other  for  its 
passage  into  the  reticulum.  The  food  enters  the  reticulum  from  the  front  and 
passes  into  the  omasum  from  a  back  opening.  From  the  omasum  the  food 
enters  the  true  stomach,  to  be  digested  and  passed  into  the  small  intestines. 

71 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Both  the  large  and  small  intestines  are  similar  to  those  of  the  horse, 
but  are  larger  and  longer  and  less  liable  to  become  diseased.  When  the  food 
enters  the  intestines,  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  bile  secreted  in  the  liver;  the 
nourishment  is  carried  into  the  blood  and  the  balance  is  passed  out  as  manure. 

The  gall  bladder  in  the  liver  of  the  ox  accumulates  gall  which  is  forced 
into  the  intestines  during  the  process  of  digestion. 


SKELETON  OF  THE  COW 

Some  knowledge  of  the  skeleton  is  advisable  to  facilitate  the  study  of  diseases  of 
bones  and  the  accidental  injuries  to  which  they  are  exposed.  The  skeleton  of  the  adult 
ox  is  made  up  of  the  following  number  of  bones: 


Spinal  column 45 

Head  28 

Chest    27 

Shoulder 2 —  1  on  each  side. 

Arm 2 —  1  on  each  side. 

Forearm 4 —  2  on  each  side. 

Forefoot 40 — 20  on  each  side. 


Pelvis 2 —  1  on  each  side. 

Thigh    2 —  1  on  each  side. 

Leg 6 —  3  on  each  side. 

Hind  foot .  38 — 19  on  each  side. 


Total  .  ..196 


Urinary  Organs. — The  bladder  and  urinary  passage  are  much  the  same 
as  in  the  horse,  but  the  kidneys  of  the  ox  are  larger. 

Respiratory  Organs. — The  respiratory  organs  of  the  ox  are  not  as  sus- 
ceptible to  disease  as  those  of  the  horse  although  they  are  much  the  same  in 
construction.  In  the  normal  animal  the  heart  beats  from  forty-eight  to  fifty- 
six  times  in  a  minute.  The  pulse  may  be  taken  on  the  under  side  of  the  lower 
jaw,  taking  the  artery  between  the  first  and  second  fingers.  The  normal  respir- 
ation is  from  ten  to  twenty  per  minute  and  is  easily  counted  by  watching  the 
nostrils.  The  temperature  in  cattle  is  very  important  in  ascertaining  the 
presence  of  disease  and  every  cattle  owner  should  possess  a  clinical  thermome- 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT  73 

ten  The  temperature  may  be  obtained  by  inserting  the  thermometer  in  the 
rectum  for  two  or  three  minutes.  In  normal  cattle  it  should  register  about 
101  degrees.  If  very  much  above  101^  the  animal  is  considered  feverish. 

ACTION  OF  DRUGS  IN  CATTLE  AND  HORSES. 

Certain  remedies  do  not  always  affect  cattle  and  horses  the  same  way. 
Mustard  acts  better  with  cattle  than  horses  but  turpentine  does  not  act  as  well. 
Oils  make  a  good  cathartic  for  horses,  but  melted  lard  is  much  better  for  cattle. 
It  is  generally  better  to  dilute  the  drugs  well  that  are  to  be  given  to  cattle 
because  of  the  great  size  of  the  stomach  and  the  amount  of  food  in  it.  Also 
cattle  require  nearly  twice  as  much  medicine  as  horses. 

DRENCHING  A  COW. 

It  is  quite  a  simple  matter  to  drench  a  cow.  Hold  the  animal's  head 
high  enough  to  form  an  incline  for  the  medicine  to  run  into  the  back  of  the 
mouth.  Stand  on  the  left  side  and  hold  the  nostrils  with  the  thumb  and 
finger.  The  only  thing  left  to  do  is  to  put  the  nozzle  of  the  bottle  into  the 
mouth  and  let  the  medicine  run  down.  Caution:  Pour  the  medicine  down 
slowly  so  that  it  will  run  into  the  fourth  stomach  where  it  should  go. 

BANDAGING  AND  STITCHING  WOUNDS. 

In  some  way,  the  edges  of  the  wound  must  be  brought  together  and  kept 
there ;  in  case  it  is  on  the  legs,  a  bandage  or  strip  of  adhesive  plaster  applied 
smoothly  around  the  leg  may  be  sufficient  to  hold  the  wound  together,  if 
not,  and  stitches  are  required,  a  surgeon's  needle  having  sharp  edges  and  silk 
thread  or  catgut  should  be  used.  Bring  the  edges  together  as  smoothly  as 
possible  by  passing  the  needle  through  both  edges  of  the  wound.  Do  not 
draw  the  stitch  too  tight  as  a  little  swelling  of  the  parts  will  cause  them  to 
tear.  A  small  opening  should  be  left  near  the  bottom  for  pus  to  drain  out. 
After  the  wound  is  sewed,  it  should  be  treated  with  antiseptics,  and  carefully 
protected  from  injury.  If  catgut  is  used  in  stitching  it  will  absorb,  but  if 
thread  is  used  the  stitches  may  be  removed  in  five  or  six  days  if  the  wound 
has  done  well.  In  treating  wounds,  see  "Horse  Department." 

CASTRATION  OF  CALVES  AND  BULLS. 

This  operation  consists  in  removing  the  reproductive  organs.  Calves 
should  be  thrown  on  their  sides  to  be  castrated,  but  a  bull  is  usually  castrated 
while  standing.  He  should  be  fastened  in  by  stocks  or  else  tied  to  the  wall 
and  a  stout  post.  His  right  side  should  be  towards  the  wall.  He  can  be 
held  there  by  means  of  a  surcingle  around  his  body.  Wash  the  ccrotum, 
hands  and  knife  in  a  carbolic  acid  solution  (1  part  to  30)  before  performing 
the  operation.  In  this  operation  the  testicles  are  forced  low  down  in  the 
sack  with  the  left  hand  while  a  bold  incision  is  made  with  the  knife  on  the 
back  side  of  the  sack  clear  to  the  bottom.  Draw  one  testicle  down  and  cut 


74  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

off  the  cord  well  up.  Tie  the  end  of  the  cord  with  silk  or  catgut  or  else  use 
the  ecraseur  or  emasculator.  Be  sure  the  string  is  long  enough  to  be  pulled 
off  later. 

The  cord  in  calves  can  be  cut  off  with  a  knife  without  danger.  The  parts 
should  be  washed  thoroughly  in  peroxide  of  hydrogen  or  one  part  carbolic 
acid  to  thirty  parts  of  water  at  least  once  a  day  until  they  are  healed. 


Drenching  the  Cow 

DISEASES. 

Explanation. — The  subjects  in  this  department  are  arranged  in  alphabet- 
ical order  so  as  to  help  the  reader  find  what  he  is  looking  for  without  even 
turning  to  the  index.  However,  a  complete  index  will  be  found  at  the  back 
of  the  book. 

Abortion. 

Abortion  is  the  expulsion  of  the  immature  young.  It  is  more  common 
in  cattle  but  it  occurs  in  other  farm  animals,  especially  where  large  numbers 
are  kept  together.  Usually  caused  by  copulation  but  may  be  transmitted 
from  one  cow  to  another.  Some  assert  that  consuming  affected  food  or  water 
is  often  the  cause. 

Symptoms. — In  the  early  months  there  is  usually  no  warning  before  an 
abortion  has  taken  place.  A  sticky,  rusty  and  odorless  discharge  a  few  days 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT  75 

before  the  abortion.     Soon  after  a  yellowish-gray  discharge  lasts  for  several 
weeks,  also  a  rope  of  mucus  often  hangs  from  the  vulva. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  can  be  very  little  aside  from  good  care  and 
sanitary  measures.  To  prevent  the  bull  from  carrying  the  infection,  clip  the 
hair  from  the  opening  of  the  sheath.  Disinfect  the  parts  with  */2  percent  of 
compound  cresol  solution  or  lysol.  Irrigate  the  uterus  of  the  cow  daily  with 
the  same  solution.  Remove  diseased  animal  from  the  herd.  Do  not  breed 
her  again  for  two  months.  Use  antiseptics,  taking  precautions  against  breed- 
ing to  infected  animals,  and  keeping  the  stock  in  good  vigorous  condition. 
A  cow  that  has  aborted  should  not  be  bred  for  some  time  after  all  discharge 
has  ceased.  For  two  days  before  breeding  wash  out  the  vagina  with  a  solu- 
tion of  corrosive  sublimate  (4  drops  to  a  teacupfnl  of  water).  On  the  day  of 
breeding  use  warm  water  instead  of  the  solution,  as  the  latter  will  destroy 
the  semen. 

Home  Prevention  for  Abortion. — Mix  ten  pounds  of  salt,  one  pound  of 
sulphur  and  one  pound  of  powdered  hyposulphite  of  soda.  Give  a  medium 
handful  about  three  times  each  week  to  pregnant  cows. 

(Also  See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  152.) 

Afterbirth,  Retained. 

This  occurs  because  of  inflammation  of  the  womb;  lack  of  preparation 
because  of  abortion ;  imperfect  power  of  contraction ;  innutritions  food ;  rapid 
closure  after  calving;  a  too  prompt  milking  by  attendant  or  sucking  by  the 

calf. 

Symptoms. — Membranes  hang  from  vulva  and  decay,  causing  offensive 
odor ;  ill  health ;  drying  up  of  the  milk ;  wasting  away  in  flesh. 

Treatment. — If  the  cow  is  in  low  condition  or  the  cause  is  connected 
with  food,  give  hot  drinks  and  hot  mashes  of  wheat  bran.  If  besides  the 
above  conditions  the  bowels  are  tight,  give  an  ounce  of  ground  ginger,  or  \l/2 
pound  of  Glauber's  salt  in  4  quarts  of  warm  water,  or  half  an  ounce  of  black 
pepper  given  with  a  quart  of  sweet  oil.  Give  one  or  two  quarts  of  boiled 
flaxseed  tea  frequently.  Seize  the  dependent  part  of  the  afterbirth  between 
two  sticks,  roll  it  on  them  until  they  lie  against  the  vulva,  by  careful  drawing 
and  moving  from  side  to  side  the  afterbirth  is  wound  up  until  finally  its  last 
connections  are  severed.  Do  not  neglect  attending  to  this  removal. 

Anthrax.— (See  "Sheep  Department,"   Page  203.) 
Barrenness  in  Cows  and  Bulls. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  152.) 

Black  Leg. 

This  is  a  contagious  disease  usually  affecting  young  cattle.  Germs 
entering  through  some  abrasion  in  the  skin  while  the  animal  is  on  pasture,  or 
taken  into  the  body  with  the  drinking  water  or  with  the  food.  It  seems  to 
affect  calves  that  are  in  good  flesh  rather  than  those  that  are  thin. 


76  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Symptoms. — Lying  apart  from  other  stock,  lameness,  stiffness,  swellings 
on  affected  part,  which  swellings  are  full  of  gas  and  emit  a  crackling  sound 
if  rubbed ;  high  fever,  poor  appetite.  When  one  of  the  swellings  is  opened  a 
foul  smelling  fluid  runs  out,  which  is  often  streaked  with  blood. 

Treatment. — Animals  with  black  leg  generally  live  several  days,  but  few 
recover.  Put  the  well  calves  on  new  uninfected  pasture  or  barns  and  give 
uninfected  water.  This  is  a  reliable  and  safe  preventive  and  should  be  done 
before  the  trouble  occurs,  if  there  is  black  leg  in  the  country. 

Dissolve  a  scant  teacupful  of  Glauber's  salt  and  one-half  to  two-thirds 
teacupful  of  table  salt  in  a  quart  of  water.  Give  this  dose  again  from  4  to 
6  hours  and  once  a  day  for  several  days.  This  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
remedies  known. 

Prevention  for  Black  Leg. — A  safe  and  reliable  prevention  is  to  vaccinate 
with  a  good  black  leg  virus. 

Take  three  pounds  each  of  air-slaked  lime  and  saltpeter,  six  pounds  of 
sulphate  of  iron  and  ten  pounds  of  sulphur,  pulverize  and  mix  thoroughly. 
Instead  of  feeding  salt  alone,  use  a  pound  of  this  mixture  to  a  gallon  of  salt. 
This  medicine  is  used  to  prevent  black  leg  in  many  parts  of  the  West. 

Bleeding. 

Slight  hemorrhages  may  be  stopped  by  the  continual  application  of  ice, 
snow  or  cold  water  to  the  wound.  Lint  or  sponges  may  be  forced  into  a 
wound  and  held  with  bandages.  Tie  a  piece  of  string  tight  around  the  end 
of  a  cut  artery.  When  necessary  saturate  a  bandage  in  vinegar  or  alum  and 
apply  tightly  to  the  wound. 

Blind  Staggers. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  158.) 

Bloat. 

Bloat  means  an  enlarged  condition  of  the  paunch  caused  by  being  filled 
with  gases  of  fermentation.  Green  food,  choking,  acute  indigestion,  gases  in 
the  digestive  tract  are  the  causes  of  bloat. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  has  an  anxious  expression,  moves  uneasily  and 
is  evidently  distressed.  Drum-like  sounds  are  made  when  the  fingers  are 
snapped  against  the  left  flank.  The  animal  moves  slowly,  breathes  with  diffi- 
culty, often  emits  a  grunt  or  moan  as  it  breathes.  There  is  a  dripping  of 
saliva  from  mouth,  colicky  pains  are  shown  by  kicking  at  belly  or  stepping 
about  uneasily.  The  animal  may  stagger  and  fall  as  bloating  increases  and 
die  if  not  relieved. 

Treatment. — In  a  light  case  of  bloat  no  medicine  may  be  needed ;  it  may 
be  sufficient  to  walk  the  animal  around  for  half  an  hour.  When  the  life  of 
the  animal  is  in  danger,  tapping  should  be  resorted  to  since  there  is  little 
danger  from  this  operation.  This  should  be  done,  if  the  flank  is  drum-like, 
in  order  to  let  the  gas  escape.  After  medicine  is  used  the  bowels  should  be 
opened  by  injections  of  warm  soapy  water. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT 


77 


In  moderate  cases  give  adult  cattle  two-ounce  doses  of  aromatic  spirits 
of  ammonia  or  dissolve  half  an  ounce  of  chloride  of  lime  in  a  pint  of  warm 
water  and  give  as  a  dose.  Repeat  every  half  hour  until  relieved. 

Dash  cold  water  against  animal's  sides  until  relieved.  A  prominent 
farmer  writes  that  covering  the  animal  with  wet  cold  blankets  and  changing 
them  often  brings  relief. 


Tapping  the  Paunch  of  the  Cow  for  Bloat 

Be  sure  to  tap  on  the  left   side  and  as  near  a  point  midway  between  the  last  rib 
and  the  point  of  the  hip  as  it  is  possible  to  determine. 

Arrange  the  animal's  front  feet  about  a  foot  higher  than  the  hind  feet. 
This  allows  the  gas  to  escape. 

A  good  remedy  for  bloat  is  two  tablespoonfuls  of  common  baking  soda 
given  in  water  as  a  drench. 

Give  heaping  tablespoonful  doses  of  finely  pulverized  charcoal  in  J4 
gallon  of  water  as  a  drench. 

The  gas  may  often  be  started  by  putting  red  or  black  pepper  on  the 
animal's  upper  lip.  This  causes  him  to  run  out  the  tongue. 

Pull  the  tongue  out  of  one  side  of  the  mouth  and  throw  a  small  handful 
of  salt  well  toward  the  back  part  before  loosening  the  tongue.  The  cow  will 
then  work  the  tongue  and  stimulate  the  flow  of  saliva  which  promotes  the 
gulping  up  of  gas.  This  will  often  work  better  if  the  mouth  is  bitted  open. 


78  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

An  excellent  remedy  is  to  tie  a  piece  of  tarred  rope  through  the  mouth 
and  back  of  the  horns. 

Hold  the  mouth  open  by  putting  a  stick  about  the  size  of  a  fork  handle 
through  it.  Tie  this  in  place  with  a  rope  around  the  horns.  Daub  some 
pine  tar  on  this  stick  if  you  have  it.  If  the  bloat  is  not  relieved  tap  the 
animal. 

Give  one  tablespoonful  of  baking  soda  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  salt  in 
a  quart  of  warm  water  as  a  drench.  If  bloat  is  reduced  give  from  one  to 
two  pounds  of  Epsom  salts.  . 

Tapping  should  always  be  done  when  the  medicines  do  not  give  relief 
and  the  paunch  becomes  drum-like.  Tie  the  animal's  head  securely  if  possible 
and  wash  the  part  where  the  body  is  to  be  tapped,  with  any  good  disinfectant. 
Make  a  small  incision  through  the  skin  over  the  most  prominent  part  of  the 
swelling  on  the  left  side  about  midway  between  the  last  rib  and  the  point  of 
the  hip,  to  admit  the  trocar.  Push  the  trocar  in  boldly  in  a  downward  and 
forward  direction  and  you  will  not  fail  to  tap  the  paunch.  Remove  the 
trocar  and  leave  the  canula  until  the  gas  escapes.  If  the  food  clogs  up  the 
canula,  push  the  trocar  in  again  to  clear  it  out.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  remove  both  the  trocar  and  canula  and  plunge  them  in  again 
in  a  different  direction,  using  the  same  hole  in  the  skin.  It  may  be  even 
better  to  perform  the  operation  in  a  different  spot.  Give  the  animal  one 
pound  of  Glauber's  salts  after  the  operation  to  avoid  constipation. 

In  case  the  paunch  becomes  drum-like  and  you  have  no.  trocar  and  canula 
do  not  desitate  to  tap  the  animal  with  a  small  bladed  knife.  Make  the  incision 
on  the  left  side  at  the  most  prominent  part  which  is  usually  half  way  between 
the  last  rib  and  point  of  thejiip.  Direct  the  blade  downward  to  avoid  making 
too  large  a  cut  if  the  cow  jumps.  Insert  a  quill  or  clean  pipe  stem  into  the 
opening  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape.  If  the  gas  does  not  escape  tap  again. 

Blocked  Teats  or  Stricture  of  the  Teats. 

This  often  happens  to  cows.  It  is  caused  by  some  irritant  inside  the  teat, 
injuries,  a  growth  inside  the  teat  blocking  the  passage  or  unhealthy  condition 
of  the  glands. 

Treatment. — When  the  trouble  is  caused  by  a  growth  it  may  often  be 
removed  by  looping  a  fine  spring  passed  as  a  loop  through  a  fine  tube  and 
insert  into  the  teat. 

If  an  application  of  iodine  is  put  on  the  teat  once  a  day  it  will  often  remove 
the  trouble. 

Blood  Letting. 

Blood  letting  is  not  practiced  any  more  by  the  most  enlightened  people 
except  in  the  most  extreme  cases  and  then  only  when  everything  else  has 
failed. 

Blood  Poisoning. 

Germs  entering  the  body  through  open  sores,  or  some  poisonous  matter 
entering  the  system. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT  79 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  appetite,  fever,  fast,  quick  breathing,  and  sometimes 
delirium. 

Treatment. — Take  care  of  the  animal  immediately.  See  if  there  is  an 
abscess  causing  the  trouble. 

If  an  abscess  has  formed  apply  peroxide  of  hydrogen  (1  part  to  2  of 
water)  after  breaking  the  abscess.  Then  apply  a  carbolic  acid  solution  (1 
teaspoonful  to  a  cup  of  water).  Use  this  treatment  several  times  daily  and 
give  a  good  tonic  three  to  five  times  a  day.  Watch  the  bowels  and  give 
a  good  cathartic  when  necessary. 

Bloody  Milk. 

Symptoms. — Injuries,  excitement  caused  from  heat,  circulation  increased 
by  more  abundant  food  than  usual,  tumors  in  the  udder,  eating  of  logwood  or 
madder,  all  may  cause  blood  in  the  milk. 

Treatment. — Study  out  the  cause  and  remote  it.  See  that  the  animal 
has  proper  bedding. 

Bathe  the  bag  in  hot  or  cold  water  and  rub  with  camphorated  lard.  Reduce 
the  feed  if  it  is  too  rich  or  abundant* 

Mix  one  part  of  iodine  ointment  to  two  parts  of  soft  soap,  and  rub  the 
bag  frequently  with  this  mixture. 

Breathing  in  Young  Calves — (How  to  Start). 

Clear  the  mouth  and  nose,  and  remove  the  membranes,  then  start  the  calf 
to  breathing.  To  do  this  press  the  chest  in  and  out  gently  or  blow  into  the 
nostrils. 

Bronchitis. 

Inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bronchial  tubes  is  a  com- 
mon disease  with  domestic  animals.  The  usual  causes  are:  exposure  to  cold 
and  dampness,  it  sometimes  follows  sore  throat,  breathing  irritating  gases, 
etc. 

Symptoms. — Bronchitis  often  starts  with  a  chill  and  is  followed  with 
fever.  The  pulse  is  hard  and  rapid;  the  cough  short,  dry  and  husky;  the 
bowels  are  constipated ;  loss  of  appetite. 

Treatment. — Supply  fresh  air  but  avoid  drafts.  Keep  the  contents  of 
the  bowels  in  a  soft  condition  by  enemas.  Keep  the  body  warm  by  blanketing. 
In  the  early  stages  give  a  solution  consisting  of  4  fluid  ounces  acetate  of 
ammonium,  2  drams  extract  of  belladonna  and  yt>  pint  water.  Give  this  three 
times  daily. 

Make  a  paste  of  mustard  and  lard  and  apply  to  the  chest,  the  lower  part 
of  the  neck,  and  the  sides. 

Put  one  tablespoonful  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  bucket  of  hot  water  and  let  the 
animal  inhale  the  fumes.  Repeat  every  hour. 

Give  injections  of  soapy  water  to  open  the  bowels.  Violent  purgatives 
should  never  be  given. 


80  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Buffalo  Gnat. 

These  are  known  also  as  black  flies,  they  have  a  humped  back  and  are 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  They  breed  in  running  water.  Their  bite 
is  poisonous  and  causes  heavy  losses. 

Treatment. — Burning  of  smudges  often  keeps  them  away.  They  appear 
more  on  sunny  days.  Cattle  will  not  be  molested  when  in  darkened  stables. 
Use  repellant  as  shown  under  flies. 

Capped  Elbow.— (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  175.) 

Catarrh. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose  and  parts 
of  the  head.  It  oftens  affects  the  eyes  and  throat  by  making  them  red  and 
watery. 

Damp  stables,  exposure  to  sudden  changes  of  weather,  especially  when 
wet  and  cold,  inhalation  of  irritating  gases,  are  some  of  the  causes. 

Symptoms. — Often  some  fever  and  cough ;  discharge  from  the  nose  that 
is  watery  at  first  but  soon  thickens ;  eyes  inflamed  and  swollen ;  constipated, 
poor  appetite ;  tips  of  horns  and  ears  have  variable  temperature. 

Treatment. — Take  good  care  of  the  animal.  Give  him  a  roomy  dry  stable. 
Feed  laxative  foods.  In  severe  cases  hot  medicated  inhalations  may  be 
given.  Give  the  animal  about  one  pound  of  Glauber's  salt  to  loosen  the 
bowels.  Repeat  this  dose  in  24  hours  if  necessary.  Give  from  one  to  two 
ounces  nitrate  of  potassium  in  the  drinking  water  three  times  daily.  This  is 
to  reduce  the  fever. 

Chapped  Teats. 

Contact  with  cold  water;  sudden  chilling  in  winter;  anything  which 
irritates  them  will  cause  them  to  become  chapped. 

Treatment. — Applications  of  vaseline  are  very  good.  A  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  oil  of  sweet  almonds  and  spermaceti  may  be  applied  producing 
excellent  results.  If  very  severe,  wash  with  a  solution  of  one  dram  sugar  of 
lead  in  one  pint  of  water,  then  apply  benzoated  zinc-oxide  ointment.  Equal 
parts  of  sweet  oil  and  belladonna  rubbed  on  after  milking  is  an  excellent 
remedy. 

Choking. 

This  is  caused  by  attempting  to  swallow  too  large  an  object  such  as  a 
beet,  potato,  pear,  apple  or  turnip.  Sometimes  caused  by  bolting  dry  food. 

Symptoms. — Animal  coughs  frequently;  saliva  discharges  from  the 
mouth;  after  drinking,  the  water  is  soon  ejected;  the  expression  is  troubled; 
breathes  fast  and  sometimes  there  is  bloating. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  object  by  pressing  it  up  if  possible.  To  assist 
this  give  the  animal  a  half  pint  of  raw  linseed  or  olive  oil  before  doing  as 
above  stated.  A  well  wrapped,  twisted  wire,  a  piece  of  thin  garden  hose  or 
a  piece  of  new  rope  with  the  end  closely  wrapped,  waxed,  and  oiled,  may  be 
used  in  emergencies,  as  a  probang.  Also  the  end  of  a  tug  may  be  used. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT  81 

Tobacco  formed  into  a  ball  half  the  size  of  a  man's  fist  and  forced  down 
the  cow's  throat  as  far  as  possible,  will  often  make  the  animal  sick  and  cause 
it  to  throw  up.  This  will  relax  the  muscles  of  the  throat  and  throw  the 
object  out. 

Add  a  little  sweet  oil  to  a  strong  soap  suds.  Pour  this  down  the  animals 
throat  and  work  the  object  loose  with  the  hands. 

Cold  water  poured  in  the  animal's  ear  is  often  effective.  This  causes  the 
animal  to  shake  the  head  violently  and  thus  dislodge  the  object.  This  is 
more  applicable  to  a  horse  than  a  cow,  writes  a  prominent  Michigan  farmer. 
Throw  a  handful  of  salt  into  the  animal's  throat.  Put  a  small  handful  of  gun- 
powder on  the  back  of  the  tongue.  This  oils  the  passage  and  helps  loosen  the 
obstacle. 

Colic. 

Produced  by  drinking  too  freely  of  cold  water,  which  brings  on  cramps 
of  the  stomach  and  bowels  and  stops  digestion. 

Symptoms. — Distension  of  the  abdomen  but  no  gas.  Animal  is  nervous 
and  restless.  Often  seized  with  a  fit  of  trembling  or  a  chill.  The  distention 
and  pain  occur  immediately  after  the  animal  has  drunk  the  water. 

Treatment. — Walk  the  animal  about  for  ten  minutes.  Then  give  a 
tablespoonful  of  powdered  ginger  in  a  pint  of  warm  water.  Put  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  spirits  of  camphor  in  a  pint  of  warm  water  and  give  as  a  drench. 

Constipation. 

This  is  more  a  symptom  of  disease  or  of  faults  in  feeding  than  a  disease 
itself.  It  occurs  most  generally  in  fevers,  from  feeding  on  bulky  or  dry  food, 
and  from  obstructions  of  all  kinds. 

Symptoms. — Animal's  nose  is  dry,  lack  of  interest  in  feeding,  manure 
usually  dry. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  cause  which  gives  rise  to  constipation.  Then 
give  purgatives  in  repeated  small  doses  instead  of  one  or  two  large  doses. 
Flaxseed  is  a  fine  feed  laxative.  Give  the  animal  plenty  of  salt.  An  enema 
of  soapsuds  and  warm  water  is  good. 

Constipation  in  New  Born  Calves. 

At  birth  the  calf's  bowels  contain  a  sticky,  brownish-yellow  material 
partially  derived  from  the  liver.  Before  they  start  their  normal  functions 
this  must  be  expelled.  The  cow's  first  milk  is  nature's  remedy  to  expel  this 

material.  .   . 

Treatment. — Give  the  calf  a  one-ounce  dose  of  castor  oil  and  inject 
soapsuds.  Give  the  cow  a  sloppy,  laxative  diet. 

Cornstalk  Disease. 

Canvbe  found  in  Central  and  Western  states.  It  is  caused  by  poisoning 
from  cornstalks;  sometimes  from  too  much  bulky  food.  Young  cattle  are  the 
most  easily  affected,  especially  in  wet  weather. 


82  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Symptoms. — Moaning  and  bellowing;  actions  denoting  delirium,  avoid- 
ance of  the  other  cattle. 

Preventive  Treatment. — Feed  and  water  the  cattle  well  before  turning 
them  out  into  the  field  at  first.  Leave  them  in  the  cornfield  but  half  an 
hour  the  first  day.  Give  laxative  foods  and  salt  regularly.  Drench  with 
strong  tansy  tea  to  affect  a  cure,  writes  a  Missouri  farmer. 

Cow  Pox. 

This  is  a  contagious  inflammation  of  the  udder  and  usually  spreads  from 
animal  to  animal  by  the  hands  of  the  milker.  Sometimes  it  affects  the  legs 
or  heels  of  the  horse  and  is  thus  transmitted  to  the  cows. 

Symptoms. — Cow  has  slight  fever.  Tenderness  of  the  teats  is  usually 
noticed  first,  and  pale-red  bunches  appear.  These  grow  from  the  size  of  a  pea 
to  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  yield  of  milk  lessens.  Blisters  form 
in  about  ten  days  and  soon  become  yellow  from  containing  pus.  Milking 
causes  raw  sores  instead  of  blisters. 

Treatment. — Heal  the  sores.  Milk  gently  using  teat  tube  or  dilator  if 
necessary.  Wash  the  teats  in  a  solution  of  half  an  ounce  hyposulphite  of 
soda  in  a  pint  of  water. 

Dehorning  Calves. 

Apply  caustic  potash  to  the  horns  when 
they  start  if  you  would  kill  them.  (See 
page  43.) 

Dysentery — Chronic. 

This  word  as  commonly  used  signifies  a 
severe  form  of  diarrhea.    It  is  a  symptom  of 
irritation  of  the  intestines  causing  increased 
muscular  contractions  or  secretions.     Some- 
Chronic  Dysentery  times  the  result  of  improper  feeding,  chilling 

or  parasites. 

Symptoms. — Passages  from  bowels  are  frequent,  consisting  of  watery 
and  offensive  dung  which  may  be  streaked  with  blood.  The  animal  becomes 
weak  and  restless,  lies  down  and  shows  evidence  of  abdominal  pain.  Some- 
times loss  of  flesh  and  strength  quickly  results. 

Treatment. — If  caused  by  irritating  properties,  give  a  pint  of  castor  oil 
or  raw  linseed  oil.  When  there  is  lack  of  appetite  but  no  fever,  mix  two 
ounces  of  powdered  gentian  and  one  ounce  Tannic  acid  and  give  one-twelfth 
three  times  a  day  until  normal  appearance  is  shown.  Parched  rye  flour,  strong 
coffee,  raw  eggs  or  a  tea  from  oak  bark  are  excellent  remedies  for  this 
disease. 

Eczema. 

This  is  a  noncontagious  inflammation  of  the  skin,  caused  by  filthiness, 
overfeeding,  overcrowding,  or  stables  which  are  too  damp  or  excessively 
warm. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT 


83 


Supports  for  Prolapsed  Uterus  in  Eversion  of  the  Womb 


84  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Symptoms. — Swelling  and  increased  heat  of  the  skin,  small  rounded 
elevations  containing  a  water  fluid.  Water  disappears  and  crust  forms.  Skin 
becomes  red  and  thickens,  crust  peels  off.  Animal  keeps  parts  raw  by 
rubbing. 

Treatment. — Feed  moderately  such  feeds  as  ground  oats,  clean  hay,  bran 
mashes,  green  feed  and  plenty  of  salt.  Give  half  an  ounce  of  acetate  of  potas- 
sium twice  a  day.  Give  Epsom  salts  if  a  purgative  is  needed.  If  animal 
is  poor  give  a  tablespoonful  of  the  following  mixture  in  feed  twice  a  day : 
Sulphur,  gentian,  powdered  copperas  and  sassafras  bark,  equal  parts  by 
weight.  Be  careful  the  animal  does  not  have  lice. 

Eversion  of  the  Womb. 

This  is  failure  of  the  womb  to  contract  after  calving. 

Symptoms. — The  womb  is  distinguished  by  from  50  to  100  mushroom- 
like  bodies,  each  2  or  3  inches  in  diameter,  clustering  on  its  sides. 

Treatment. — Treat  the  case  promptly.  In  partial  eversion,  have  an  as- 
sistant pinch  the  back  to  prevent  straining  while  the  operator  pushes  the 
mass  back  through  the  vagina  with  his  closed  fist.  In  complete  eversion,  with 
the  womb  of  its  natural  bulk  and  cow  standing,  pinch  the  back  as  before 
mentioned,  have  two  men  to  hold  a  sheet  to  sustain  the  womb  and  raise 
it  to  the  level  of  the  vulva.  Sponge  clean  with  cold  water ;  this  reduces  the 
bulk  and  drives  out  the  blood.  Plant  the  closed  fist  in  the  rounded  end  of 
the  largest  horn  and  push,  turning  it  back  within  itself  and  carrying  it  on 
through  the  vagina.  Use  the  other  hand  to  assist  in  the  inversion.  Retain 
the  returned  womb  by  tying  a  strap  or  rope  around  the  neck  and  a  surcingle 
around  the  body.  Make  a  rope  truss  from  two  ropes  each  about  18  feet 
long  and  one  inch  thick.  Double  each  rope  at  its  middle,  and  lay  one  above 
the  other  at  the  bend  so  as  to  form  an  egg-shaped  loop  about  8  inches  in 
its  long  diameter.  Twist  each  end  of  the  one  rope  twice  around  the  other 
so  this  loop  will  remain  when  drawn  tight.  Place  the  rope  truss  so  the  loop 
will  surround  the  vulva.  The  two  descending  ropes  are  carried  forward  on 
the  sides  of  the  animal  and  tied  to  the  surcingle  and  neck  collar.  Twist 
the  other  ropes  and  proceed  forward  on  the  cow's  back  tying  them  to  the 
surcingle  and  collar.  The  rope  ring  should  press  firmly  around  the  vulva. 
See  that  this  is  worn  for  several  davs. 


Foot  and  Mouth  Disease. 

This  disease  is  highly  infectious  and  attacks  cloven  footed  animals 
chiefly.  It  affects  the  mouth,  between  the  toes  and  above  the  hoofs.  Every 
outbreak  starts  from  a  previous  outbreak. 

Symptoms. — There  is  tenderness  of  affected  parts,  lameness,  loss  of 
appetite,  and  the  quantity  of  milk  diminishes.  The  animal  opens  and  closes 
its  mouth  with  a  smacking  sound  and  ropy  saliva  soon  hangs  from  the 
lips. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT 


85 


1.     Sorts    Between    and   Above   the   Cl.-ft    in    tin-    lm,,f 
f  FOOT-AND-JtOL'TH    DISEASE 


86  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Treatment. — Keep  healthy  animals1  of  all  kinds  away  from  infected  cattle. 
Keep  people  connected  with  other  animals  away  from  the  premises.  While 
the  affected  cattle  may  recover  in  a  few  weeks,  the  virus  may  be  carried 
on  them  and  the  disease  thus  spread.  Get  rid  of  all  cattle  that  have  had  the 
disease.  Disinfect  with  any  of  the  following  solutions :  A  5  percent  solution 
of  pure  carbolic  acid;  standard  chloride  of  lime,  1  pound  to  3  gallons  of 
water;  formaldehyde,  1  quart  40  percent  solution  to  5  gallons  of  water;  or  a 
3  percent  solution  of  cresol  compound.  Burn  the  manure  and  plow  under. 
Do  not  purchase  other  cattle  for  at  least  60  days  after  disinfection. 

Flies— Keeping  Them  Off  Stock. 

The  following  is  said  to  protect  cows  for  a  week :  One  pound  common 
laundry  soap,  4  gallons  water,  1  gallon  crude  petroleum,  4  ounces  powdered 
naphthalin.  Cut  the  soap  into  thin  shavings  and  dissolve  in  warm  water; 
then  dissolve  the  naphthalin  in  the  crude  oil  and  mix  the  two  solutions 
thoroughly.  Stir  well  before  using  and  apply  with  a  brush,  or  use  1 
pound  rancid  lard  and  one-half  pint  kerosene.  Mix  into  a  creamy  mass. 
Recommended  by  Minnesota  Experiment  Station.  A  mixture  of  cottonseed  oil 
and  pine  tar  has  produced  excellent  results.  Use  every  day  or  two. 

Frost  Bites. 

A  day  or  two  after  freezing,  the  ear  becomes  swollen  and  painful.  The 
dead  part  is  cold  and  begins  to  shrivel.  Mix  one  part  each  of  turpentine,  am- 
monia and  chloroform,  then  add  six  parts  of  sweet  oil.  Rub  this  on  affected 
part.  It  relieves  pain  and  stimulates  the  circulation. 

Grubs  in  the  Back. 

These  grubs  develop  from  the  eggs  of  the  heel  fly  or  warble  fly.  The 
fly  resembles  a  small  black  bee.  It  appears  early  in  summer  and  lays  its 
eggs  on  the  skin  of  cattle.  The  usual  mode  of  entrance  is  through  the  skin, 
although  the  eggs  or  newly-hatch  larvae  may  be  taken  into  the  mouth  by  the 
cattle  licking  themselves. 

Symptoms. — Conspicuous  lumps  form  during  the  latter  part  of  winter  and 
spring. 

Treatment. — When  the  grubs  have  reached  a  late  stage  of  development 
they  may  be  squeezed  out  and  killed.  When  lumps  are  small,  cut  with  a  sharp 
knife  and  press  out  the  grub.  You  can  kill  the  grubs  by  forcing  grease  or 
oil  into  the  openings  of  the  lumps.  The  only  objection  is  that  the  dead 
grubs  remain  beneath  the  skin. 

Impaction  of  the  Omasum  or  Third  Stomach. 

This  is  caused  by  food  clogged  in  third  stomach  resulting  from  eating 
a  lot  of  old  dead  hay  in  summer  or  extra  dry  feed  in  winter. 

Symptoms. — There  are  sharp  pains  on  right  side  and  the  animal  has 
considerable  fever.  No  bloating  is  usually  shown,  animal  does  not  like 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT 


87 


to  move  and  keeps  looking  toward  the  right  side.  Below  the  ribs  on  right 
side  a  hard  substance  can  be  felt.  Delirium  often  sets  in. 

Treatment. — Give  a  drench  consisting  of  two  ounces  of  ginger  and  one 
and  one-half  pounds  of  Glauber's  salts.  Twelve  hours  after  the  bowels  have 
moved  feed  moist  mashes  or  gruels  and  keep  this  up  for  several  days  at 
regular  intervals. 

To  insure  bowel  movement,  give  one  quart  of  linseed  oil  or  one  quart 
melted  lard  after  twelve  hours. 


A.  Rumen  or  First  Stomach. 

B.  Recticulum  or  Second  Stomach. 

C.  Omasum  or  Third   Stomach. 

D.  Abomasum  or  Fourth  Stomach. 

E.  Esophagus  or  Gullet. 

F.  Opening  from  Fourth  Stomach  to  Small  Intestines. 

On  being  swallowed  the  food  passes  into  the  first  (A)  stomach  from  the  gullet  (E).  In 
(A)  and  (B)  a  churning  motion  is  kept  up  which  keeps  the  food  passing  from  stomach 
to  stomach.  From  (A)  the  food  is  returned  to  the  mouth  through  (E)  for  rechewing 
before  it  is  finally  passed  on  to  the  third  and  fourth  stomachs,  and  the  small  intestines. 

Impaction  of  the  Rumen. 

This  often  happens  after  heavy  meals  which  remain  in  the  stomach  un- 
digested, often  causing  temporary  paralysis. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  is  greatly  distressed.  It  breathes  as  though  it 
was  suffocating.  Fever  develops.  The  animal  moans  frequently.  The  bowels 
are  bound  and  the  manure  is  foul  smelling. 


88  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Treatment. — A  drench  consisting  of  2]/2  ounces  of  ginger  and  one  pound 
of  Glauber's  salts  often  gives  relief.  Raw  linseed  oil  is  also  good.  When 
paralysis  has  actually  occurred,  the  operation  termed  rumenotomy  must  be 
performed.  This  is  an  operation  for  the  removal  of  the  contents  of  the  paunch 
through  the  side.  Cut  into  the  paunch  on  the  left  side  and  remove  a  large 
part  of  the  contents  with  the  hand.  The  incision  should  be  made  up  and 
down  midway  between  last  rib  and  point  of  hip.  The  incision  should  not 
be  more  than  six  inches  in  length.  Cleanse  the  parts  well  and  sew  up  with 
catgut.  Be  careful  about  feeding  anything  but  nourishing  slops  for  eight 
or  ten  days.  Animals  have  often  recovered  from  this  operation,  when  a 
common  jackknife  was  used,  but  get  a  surgeon  if  there  is  time. 

Impure  Blood. 

This  is  often  caused  by  overfeeding,  lack  of  exercise,  damp  stables  and 
poor  care. 

Symptoms. — Eruptions  or  scaly  condition  of  skin.  Animal  is  not  thriving. 
It  has  a  dull  eye  and  appears  listless. 

Treatment. — Cleanse  out  the  system  with  a  good  cathartic.  Charcoal  or 
sulphur  will  purify  the  blood.  Give  lots  of  exercise  and  plenty  of  salt. 

Indigestion. 

Irritating  or  damaged  feed,  overloading  of  stomach,  lack  of  exercise, 
deficiency  of  water  or  sudden  changes  of  diet  causes  indigestion. 

Symptoms. — Tongue  coated,  diminished  appetite,  mouth  slimy,  dullness, 
fullness  of  flanks  and  dung  showing  undigested  matter. 

Treatment. — -Give  sweet  silage,  roots,  or  selected  hay  several  times  each 
day  in  small  quantities.  Feed  sparingly.  Dissolve  one  pound  of  Glauber's 
salts  in  a  pint  of  molasses  and  a  quart  of  linseed  tea.  Diet  should  be  laxa- 
tive; avoid  ice  water. 

Indigestion  in  Calves. 

Indigestion  is  caused  by  the  milk  being  too  rich  or  too  plentiful;  con- 
stipation ;  allowing  a  calf  to  suck  the  first  milk  of  a  cow  that  has  been  violently 
excited ;  too  long  between  meals ;  feeding  fermented  or  spoiled  milk ;  keeping 
calves  in  dark,  bad  smelling  pens. 

Symptoms. — Dullness,  uneasiness,  sour  breath,  loss  of  appetite,  indisposi- 
tion to  move  or  lying  down  and  rising  as  if  in  pain,  and  fullness  of  stomach. 
Diarrhea  may  carry  off  the  offensive  matters  and  restore  health,  or  the 
bowels  may  become  inflamed,  fever  set  in  and  the  calf  die. 

Treatment. — Prevent  the  causes  mentioned  above.  Remove  the  irritant 
by  giving  castor  oil,  about  2  ounces  at  a  dose.  Then  at  each  feeding  give  30 
grains  of  pepsin  and  a  teaspoonful  of  tincture  of  gentian.  Injections  of  warm 
soapy  water  will  help. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT  89 

Enteritis — Inflammation  of  the  Bowels. 

This  may  follow  severe  indigestion,  or  it  may  be  caused  by  swallowing 
irritant  poisons.  The  disease  may  be  produced  by  exposure  to  cold  or 
inclement  weather. 

Symptoms. — Drooping  of  the  ears,  dullness,  dry  skin,  rough  coat,  dry- 
ness  of  muzzle,  loins  sensitive,  fullness  of  left  flank  caused  by  distention 
of  fourth  stomach  by  gas,  loss  of  appetite,  pulse  weak,  animal  staggers  and 
grunts.  Passages  few  at  first  and  often  coated  with  blood.  Later  a  severe 
diarrhea  begins  and  passages  have  an  offensive  odor.  Animal  has  colicky 
pain  which  may  continue.  Fever  occurs,  there  is  general  depression  and  in- 
sensibility before  death.  The  disease  is  often  fatal.  After  death  the  walls  of 
the  stomach  are  thick  and  soft  and  often  show  ulcerations. 

Treatment. — Feed  selected  food  carefully.  Do  not  force  the  appetite. 
Protect  from  cold  and  dampness.  Give  boiled  milk,  rice  water,  boiled  oatmeal 
gruel,  or  linseed  tea.  Subnitrate  of  bismuth  in  2  teaspoonful  doses  is  good,  as 
is  also  Y-2  to  one  teaspoonful  dose  of  Tannopin. 

Inflammation  of  the  Fourth  Stomach. 

This  results  from  the  presence  of  a  foreign  body  in  the  stomach.  The 
animals  often  swallow  their  food  without  chewing  it  carefully,  thus  un- 
digestible  objects  may  be  swallowed.  Calves  often  get  this  disease  by 
eating  frozen  or  decomposed  food. 

Symptoms. — Grunting  and  pain  upon  sudden  motion,  coughing,  pain  on 
pressure  over  the  second  stomach. 

Treatment. — If  the  presence  of  a  foreign  body  is  recognized,  the  animal 
may  be  killed  for  beef  if  there  is  no  fever.  Give  a  good  dose  of  Glauber's 
salts  and  two  ounces  of  ginger  in  warm  water.  Raw  linseed  oil  is  also  good. 
Feed  easily  digested  foods. 

Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys. 

Eating  irritating  plants,  exposure  to  wet  and  cold,  stone  or  gravel  in  the 
kidneys,  injuries  to  the  back  or  loins,  drinking  alkaline  or  stagnant  water, 
consumption  of  musty  fodder,  are  all  causes  of  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — Hurried  breathing,  rising  temperature,  fever,  dry,  hot  muz- 
zle, loss  of  appetite,  sensitiveness  in  the  loins,  suspended  chewing  of  cud, 
burning  at  the  roots  of  the  ears  and  horns,  back  arched,  hind  legs  extended 
backward  and  outward,  passes  thick  highly  colored  water  frequently  in 
driblets,  hesitates  and  groans  when  moved,  are  all  symptoms  of  this  disease. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  cause  if  possible.  Acrid  plants  may  be  removed 
from  stomach  by  doses  of  olive  or  castor  oil.  Warm  blankets  or  mustard 
poultices  over  the  loins  are  important.  Check  the  fever  by  15  drops  of 
tincture  of  aconite,  or  one-third  ounce  of  acetanalid  every  four  hours.  As 
the  disease  lessens  in  severity  give  2  teaspoonfuls  of  quinine  or  4  teaspoonfuls 
of  gentian  powder  daily  as  a  tonic.  Warm  drinks  are  preferable.  In  its 


90  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

chronic  form  give  a  tonic  daily  consisting  of  2  drams  phosphate  of  iron,  20 
grains  powdered  mix  vomica  and  4  drams  powdered  gentian  root. 

Caution:  Blisters  of  Spanish  flies,  turpentine  or  other  agent  that  may  be 
absorbed  and  irritate  the  kidneys  must  be  avoided. 

Inflammation  of  the  Liver. 

This  usually  occurs  as  a  complication  of  some  infectious  disease.  It  also 
occurs  from  fermented  or  putrid  feeds  or  from  overheating. 

Symptoms. — Yellowness  of  the  white  of  the  eye  and  the  lining  of  the 
mouth ;  appetite  is  poor ;  the  urine  comes  often  and  is  very  dark ;  pain  is 
caused  by  pressing  over  the  liver;  the  dung  is  light  colored.  Animal  lies 
down  often  and  rests  its  head  on  the  side  of  its  chest. 

Treatment. — Give  Glauber's  salts  to  cause  a  good  bowel  movement. 
After  it  has  operated,  give  a  heaping  tablespoonful  of  artificial  Carlsbad  salt 
in  the  feed  three  times  each  day. 

Inflammation  of  the  Udder. 

Blows  on  the  udder,  exposure  to  wet  or  cold,  congestion,  overfeeding 
on  rich  albuminous  feed  like  peas,  beans  or  cotton  seed,  sore  teats,  insufficient 
stripping  of  the  udder  in  milking,  are  causes  of  the  trouble. 

Symptoms. — Following  exposure,  the  animal  shivers,  with  general  erec- 
tion of  hair  and  cold  extremities.  Then  there  is  a  reaction  in  which  the 
horns,  ears  and  limbs  become  very  warm  and  the  glands  swell  up.  In  other 
cases  shivering  is  not  noticed  but  tenderness  of  the  bag,  heat  and  the  firm 
swelling  are  first  observed ;  animal  straddles  with  its  hind  limbs  and  lies 
down  on  the  unaffected  side  if  at  all. 

Treatment. — If  the  animal  is  shivering,  drench  with  plenty  of  warm  water 
and  give  warm  injections.  Wring  a  blanket  out  of  hot  water  and  place 
on  animal,  or  place  bags  loosely  filled  with  hot  salt,  sand  or  chaff  on  the 
loins  and  back.  Give  one  ounce  of  ground  ginger  to  help  shorten  the  attack. 
Sweat  the  animal  for  half  an  hour,  rub  it  well  and  cover  with  a  dry  blanket. 
If  there  is  little  or  no  fever  and  but  slight  inflammation,  rub  briskly  with  a 
weak  iodine  ointment  or  camphorated  ointment  and  milk  gently  from  3 
to  6  times  a  day.  Each  time  the  bag  should  be  rubbed  thoroughly.  Where 
fever  and  inflammation  are  more  advanced,  give  2  pounds  of  Glauber's  salts, 
and  1  ounce  of  saltpeter. 

Insect  and  Snake  Bites. 

The  poison  injected  by  bites  of  certain  poisonous  insects  and  snakes 
under  the  skin  of  animals  is  a  very  powerful  agent.  It  usually  produces 
serious  local  irritation,  oftentimes  causing  death.  It  does  so  by  checking  the 
heart  action  through  narcotic  influence  and  through  diffused  inflammation. 

Symptoms. — Local  swellings,  pricks,  depression,  weakness,  feeble  pulse, 
difficult  breathing,  stupor  or  convulsions. 

Treatment. — It  may  be  local  or  general.  First  make  every  attempt  to 
prevent  absorption  of  the  poison.  If  found  immediately,  cut  out  the  bitten 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT 


91 


Fig.  3.     Lumpy  Jaw.  Fig.  2.    Lumpy  Tumor.  Fig.  1.     Diseased  Jaw  Bone. 


92  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

part.  At  least  run  a  stick  through  a  rope  tied  about  the  limb  affected  and 
twist  it  tight  to  stop  circulation  in  the  bitten  part.  Enable  the  wound  to 
bleed  freely.  Squeeze  out  the  poison  with  the  fingers.  Permanganate 
of  potassium  in  5  percent  solution  should  be  applied  to  and  injected  into  the 
wound.  Drench  with  stimulants  such  as  Jamaica  ginger,  coffee,  digitalis,  or 
aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia. 

Lice. 

Cattle  lice  fasten  their  eggs  or  nits  to  the  hair.  Infested  animals  rub 
against  trees,  posts,  etc.,  and  lick  themselves.  Mange  is  often  suspected 
by  the  hair  coming  out  and  the  skin  becoming  thick. 

Treatment. — Mix  one-half  pint  kerosene  and  one  pound  lard,  then  smear 
it  on  the  body.  A  good  home-made  nicotine  dip  is  prepared  as  follows:  for 
each  18  gallons  of  dip  desired  take  4  pounds  of  good  prepared  tobacco  leaves, 
soak  them  in  luke-warm  water  for  24  hours  in  a  covered  container;  then  for 
a  moment  bring  the  water  to  the  boiling  point  and  let  it  stand  over  night. 
Strain  and  dilute  with  water. 

Locked  Jaw  or  Tetanus. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  169). 
Loco  Disease. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  169). 

Lump  Jaw. 

This  is  a  chronic  infectious  disease  that  chiefly  attacks  the  lower  and 
upper  jaw.  It  may  also  appear  under  the  skin  in  different  parts  of  the 
body.  It  is  conveyed  into  the  tissues  through  decayed  teeth,  slight  wounds, 
or  shedding  of  the  milk  teeth. 

Symptoms. — A  large  swelling  appears,  in  which  one  or  more  smaller 
peculiar  tumors  are  formed.  These  tumors  vary  from  the  size  of  a  nut  to  that 
of  an  egg.  These  break  through  the  skin  as  reddish,  small,  fungus-like  bodies. 
Or  sometimes  the  original  swelling  changes  into  an  abscess  which  finally 
discharges  creamy  pus,  the  abscess  cavity  soon  filling  with  fungus-like 
growths.  The  disease  may  start  in  the  marrow  of  the  bone  or  on  the  covering 
of  the  bone. 

Treatment. — Give  \l/z  or  2*/2  teaspoonfuls  of  iodide  of  potassium  once 
each  day.  This  should  be  dissolved  in  water  and  administered  as  a  drench. 
Vary  the  dose  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal  and  the  effect  produced, 
lodism  appears  in  course  of  ten  days  if  the  dose  is  large  enough.  There 
is  loss  of  appetite,  weeping  from  the  eyes  and  the  skin  becomes  scurvy.  When 
these  symptoms  appear,  stop  the  medicine  for  a  few  days  and  then  resume. 
Do  not  give  iodide  of  potassium  to  milch  cows.  It  decreases  and  spoils  the 
flow  of  milk.  If  given  to  an  animal  in  advanced  pregnancy,  it  may  produce 
abortion. 

Lung  Worms  in  Calves. — (See  "Sheep  Department,"  Page  208). 

Maggots  in  Wounds  and  Screw  Worms. — (See  "Horse  Department," 
Page  175). 

Mange. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  170). 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT  93 

Milk  Fever. 

This  disease  is  most  prevalent  among  plethoric  cows  or  those  having  ex- 
cessive fullness  of  the  blood  vessels.  It  occurs  only  at  or  near  the  time  of 
calving. 

Symptoms. — Sudden  loss  of  voluntary  movement  and  sensations,  showing 
collapse  of  nervous  power.  In  the  congestive  form  the  cow  droops  the  head, 
shows  uneasiness,  sudden  dullness,  staggers,  eyes  appear  red  and  pupils  are 
dilated,  no  longer  notices  feed  or  calf,  unable  to  rise  after  lying  down,  her 
nose  often  resting  on  the  right  flank.  Pulse  is  high  and  she  struggles  con- 
vulsively. 


Milk  Fever 

Treatment. — The  distention  of  the  udder  with  common  air  has  proved 
invariably  successful  in  all  kinds  of  cases.  It  is  best  to  have  on  hand  an 
elastic  rubber  ball  such  as  the  common  Davidson  syringe  with  tubes.  Into 
the  free  end  of  the  delivery  tubes  fit  a  milking  tube.  Before  using,  sterilize 
by  boiling  the  entire  apparatus  for  30  minutes.  Use  warm  soap  suds  to 
wash  the  teats  and  udder,  rinse  with  a  5  percent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 
Insert  the  end  of  the  tube  into  the  teat  and  fill  as  full  of  air  as  it  will  hold. 
After  withdrawing  the  tube,  tie  a  broad  tape  around  the  end  of  the  teat 
to  prevent  escape  of  the  air.  In  case  of  emergency,  use  a  bicycle  pump ; 
even  an  automobile  pump  has  been  used  successfully.  Be  as  careful  to 
prevent  infection  as  possible. 

Navel  Rupture. 

The  navel  or  umbilicus  is  the  passage  through  which  the  blood  vessels  pass 
from  the  womb  to  the  fetus  or  unborn  calf.  Sometimes  this  aperture  remains 
open  and  a  portion  of  the  bowels  or  lining  of  the  stomach  may  slip  through 
the  opening.  This  may  be  caused  by  any  severe  straining  or  blow  on  the 
belly. 

Treatment. — The  smaller  ruptures  often  cure  themselves.  Where  there 
are  no  indications  of  the  rupture  healing  of  its  own  accord,  place  the  calf  on  its 
back  and  gently  assist  the  organs  to  return  into  the  abdomen.  Clip  the  hair  from 
the  skin  covering  the  hernia,  smear  the  skin  with  pitch  and  cover  with  about  ten 
folds  of  cotton  or  linen  used  as  a  compress.  Next  pass  a  bandage  about  4  inches 
wide  round  the  body  to  hold  the  compress  in  place.  Smear  bandage  and  compress 


94  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

with  pitch  to  hold  it  in  place.  In  extreme  cases  where  the  sac  will  not  return,  cut 
the  skin  open  in  the  long  direction,  replace  the  parts  and  sew  with  catgut.  This 
should  be  done  by  a  veterinarian. 

Open  Joint. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  170). 

Paralysis  of  Hind  Parts  During  Pregnancy. 

In  unthrifty,  weak,  or  ill-fed  cows,  the  hind  limbs  and  tail  may  become  para- 
lyzed during  the  last  weeks  they  are  pregnant.  Exposure  to  wet  and  cold  in  this 
condition  hastens  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — The  rectum  is  often  completely  clogged.  Loss  of  use  of 
hind  quarters. 

Treatment. — Give  an  abundance  of  warm  food  and  a  dry  warm  bed.  Rub 
the  back  loins  and  limbs  vigorously  with  a  liniment  of  equal  parts  of  oil  of  tur- 
pentine and  sweet  oil.  If  an  electric  battery  is  handy  send  a  current  of  electricity 
through  the  muscles  in  the  hind  limbs  daily. 

Peritonitis. 

This  consists  in  an  inflammation  of  the  delicate  membrane  lining  the  abdo- 
men and  its  organs.  It  is  usually  caused  by  a  wound  and  may  follow  an  operation 
for  hernia  or  castration. 

Symptoms. — Animal  is  uneasy  and  shivers;  turns  its  head  towards  its 
belly;  has  no  appetite;  nose  is  dry;  does  not  chew  the  cud;  legs  are  placed  well 
under  its  body;  pulse  is  weak;  pressing  the  flanks  produce  pain. 

Treatment. — Discover  and  remove  the  cause.  Give  2  ounces  of  borax 
every  six  hours  until  three  doses  are  given,  then  give  6  teaspoonfuls  three  times 
daily.  Use  injections  instead  of  laxatives  to  loosen  the  bowels.  Sustain  the 
strength  by  giving  camphor  or  coffee.  Place  a  blanket  wrung  out  of  hot  water 
over  the  stomach,  cover  this  with  several  dry  blankets  and  strap  them  to  the 
body.  Change  the  wet  blanket  as  soon  as  it  cools.  The  object  is  to  bring  as  much 
blood  to  the  skin  as  possible.  Give  laxative  food  and  such  drinks  as  linseed  tea. 
If  the  disease  assumes  a  chronic  form,  give  nutritious  food  such  as  grass, 
selected  clover  hay  and  linseed  cake ;  also  give  one  dram  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium in  a  pint  of  water  three  times  daily. 

Pink  Eye.— 'Grip."    (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  171). 

Pleurisy. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  thin  membrane  lining  the  chest  and  enveloping 
the  lungs.  It  often  makes  pneumonia  more  serious.  It  often  arises  when  a  rib 
is  broken,  or  from  exposure  to  wet  or  cold. 

Symptoms. — Severe  pain,  increased  when  animal  moves.  The  pulse  is 
hard  and  quick;  the  breathing  is  from  the  stomach,  the  chest  being  quite  fixed. 
When  pressed  between  the  ribs,  the  animal  flinches  and  grunts;  nose  is  hot  and 
dry ;  mouth  slimy  and  the  secretions  scanty.  After  a  few  days  the  severity  of 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT  95 

symptoms  lessen,  patient  loses  strength,  the  countenance  is  haggard  and  the  eyes 
sink  into  their  sockets.  In  unfavorable  cases  death  occurs  during  the  second  or 
third  week. 

Treatment. — To  reduce  the  fever  in  the  early  stages,  give  one  to  two 
drams  of  Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite  for  a  short  time ;  discontinue  as  soon  as  the 
fever  begins  to  abate.  For  relief  of  the  cough,  place  a  small  tablespoonful  of  the 
following  mixture  frequently  on  the  tongue  or  back  teeth;  8  ounces  pulverized 
Chlorate  of  potassium,  2  ounces  fluid  extract  of  belladonna,  8  ounces  powdered 
licorice  root,  sufficient  quantity  of  syrup.  In  the  stage  of  effusion,  give  the  follow- 
ing three  times  daily :  one  ounce  Digitalis  tincture,  one-half  to  one  teaspoonful  io- 
dide of  potassium ;  mix.  Give  Glauber's  salts  or  linseed  oil  to  open  the  bowels. 
A  plaster  made  of  mustard  and  lard  and  fastened  on  the  chest  will  give  relief. 

Pneumonia. 

This  disease  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  substance  caused  by  congestion ; 
this  may  be  brought  about  by  exposure  to  wet  or  cold,  or  sudden  change  in  tem- 
perature. A  cow  with  this  disease  always  lies  down  as  she  has  more  lung  space 
for  breathing  in  this  position.  A  horse  always  stands  up  for  the  same  reason. 

Symptoms. — Animal  chills,  pulse  quickens,  nostrils  are  dilated,  nose  is 
hot  and  dry,  the  skin  is  harsh  and  dry,  the  tongue  is  slimy,  the  urine  is  diminished 
and  high  colored  and  the  bowels  constipated.  Animal  stands  with  forelegs  wide 
apart.  In  second  stage  the  cough  is  quick  and  painful,  the  secretions  are  sus- 
pended, the  animal  has  a  haggard  look  and  the  pulse  is  small.  In  the  third  stage 
if  the  animal  recovers,  the  cough  loosens,  the  appetite  returns,  and  the  symptoms 
leave. 

Treatment. — Good  nursing  and  surroundings  are  necessary.  If  the  pulse 
is  strong  in  the  early  stage,  give  one  to  two  teaspoonfuls  of  Fleming's  tincture  of 
aconite  every  4  or  5  hours.  Do  not  give  this  after  the  fever  begins  to  abate.  If 
constipated,  give  1  to  3  teaspoonfuls  of  calomel.  In  the  second  stage  give  the 
following  mixture  in  a  gruel  three  times  daily :  2  ounces  Spirits  of  nitrous  ether 
and  one  ounce  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia.  Two  to  five  teaspoonfuls  carbonate 
of  ammonia  has  been  found  beneficial.  Apply  counter  irritants  such  as  turpen- 
tine, mustard  plasters  or  ammonia  liniment. 

Ring  Worm. 

This  affection  of  the  skin  is  caused  by  a  vegetable  parasite  and  is  very  con- 
tagious. 

Symptoms. — Circular  patches  on  the  skin  soon  loosens  the  hair,  the  skin 
is  slightly  inflamed,  later  scaly,  brittle  crusts  appear.  The  patches  then  appear  a 
silvery-gray. 

Treatment. — Wash  with  soap  and  water  to  remove  all  crusts,  then  apply 
sulphur  ointment,  tincture  of  iodide,  acetic  acid  or  nitrate  of  mercury  ointment 
once  a  day.  Cleanse  and  whitewash  the  stable  thus  destroying  the  spores  scattered 
by  the  crusts. 


96  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Rupture — Ventral  Hernia. 

When  one  of  the  abdominal  organs  escape  through  a  rupture  in  the  abdominal 
muscles,  the  skin  remaining  intact,  it  is  called  a  rupture  and  is  caused  by  falls,  kicks 
or  blows. 

Treatment. — When  possible  push  the  hernia  back  into  the  abdomen. 
Then  place  a  layer  of  melted  pitch  and  turpentine  on  the  skin  over  the  hernia, 
cover  with  a  layer  of  soft  cloth,  then  a  new  layer  of  pitch  and  turpentine  is  spread 
on  the  cloth.  Then  cover  this  with  a  piece  of  pasteboard  which  in  turn  is  covered 
with  the  same  preparation.  Place  a  bandage  about  four  inches  wide  so  that  it  will 
retain  the  hernia  long  enough  for  the  wound  to  heal  permanently. 

Scours. 

Overloading  the  stomach  by  sucking  the  cow  at  long  intervals,  improper  feed- 
ing of  the  cow,  exposure  to  cold  and  damp,  indigestion  caused  by  feeding  cold 
milk  at  long  periods,  feeding  calves,  damaged,  sour  or  dirty  food. 

Symptoms. — Appetite  is  poor,  calf  is  depressed,  extremities  are  cold, 
sometimes  there  is  fever,  dung  gradually  grows  cream  colored  and  as  light  as  milk. 
It  has  an  offensive  odor,  later  contains  mucus  and  gas  bubbles.  There  are  pains 
when  passing  dung,  belly  contracted  and  back  arched. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  cause  and  treat  promptly.  Give  nourishing  feed 
in  small  quantities.  Clean  and  disinfect  the  stalls  and  utensils.  For  the  diarrhea, 
give  a  cup  of  strong  coffee  or  two  raw  eggs.  In  severe  cases,  give  one  ounce  of 
castor  oil,  one  teaspoonful  of  creolin  and  twenty  grains  of  subnitrate  of  bismuth. 
Repeat  the  creolin  and  bismuth  with  flaxseed  tea  every  four  hours.  A  dose  of  15 
to  30  grains  of  Tannopin  may  be  given.  When  a  calf  which  is  fed  by  hand 
develops  diarrhea,  put  four  drops  of  formalin  into  each  quart  of  its  milk.  Feed 
in  the  usual  quantity.  If  the  diarrhea  is  not  much  better  in  four  days,  use  some 
of  the  remedies  mentioned  above.  A  paste  of  flour  and  water  is  good. 

Sore  Eyes — Inflammation  of  the  Eyes. 

Weeds,  twigs  or  trees,  stems  of  straw  or  hay,  pieces  of  cornstalk,  etc.,  may 
break  off  in  the  eye.  While  they  may  enter  the  eyeball,  they  more  often  glide  oft" 
and  enter  between  the  eye  and  the  ocular  sheath. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  object.  To  do  this  it  is  often  necessary  to  cast 
the  animal.  Apply  cooling  washes  and  a  cold  water  compress  over  the  injured 
eye.  Five  drops  of  sulphate  of  zinc  to  2  tablespoonfuls  of  water  make  a  good 
wash.  Boric  acid  is  also  very  good.  Maintain  an  opening  for  the  discharge  of 
pus  when  an  abscess  forms. 

Sore  Mouth — Stomatitis. 

By  eating  some  irritating  substance  the  membrane  of  the  mouth  may  become 
inflamed.  Blisters  may  form  in  the  mouth  of  calves  because  of  indigestion 

Symptoms. — Saliva  runs  from  mouth,  surface  of  tongue  appears  red  and 
inflamed  and  sometimes  small  red  elevations  appear. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT  97 

Treatment. — When  merely  red  and  inflamed,  syringe  the  mouth  out  with 
four  ounces  of  the  following  solution :  one  ounce  alum  and  one  quart  of  water. 
Do  this  several  times  daily.  When  the  tongue  and  mouth  are  covered  with  ulcers, 
paint  them  daily  with  a  solution  consisting  of  twenty  grains  permanganate  of 
potassium  and  one  ounce  of  water.  When  indigestion  is  associated  with  this 
disease,  treat  it  separately. 

Sore  Throat. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  175). 

Sprains. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  176). 

Stifle. — (See  "Horse  Department,"  Page  177). 

Stomach  Worms  in  Calves.— (See  "Sheep  Department,"  Page  211). 

Stringy  Milk. 

Often  caused  by  the  cow  drinking  water  in  which  there  is  a  spongy  morbid 
growth. 

Treatment. — Eliminate  the  cause.  Give  the  animal  plenty  of  pure  water. 
Give  each  affected  cow  2  drams  bisulphite  of  soda  daily  and  the  trouble  will 
promptly  stop. 

Sunstroke. 

Exposure  to  rays  of  sun,  confinement  in  hot  close  places,  driven  some  dis- 
tance in  hot  weather,  often  cause  sunstroke. 

Symptoms. — Frothing  at  the  mouth,  tongue  hanging  out,  panting,  dull- 
ness, animal  is  uneasy  and  may  stagger,  fall  and  soon  become  quiet. 

Treatment. — In  light  cases  remove  to  a  sheltered,  quiet  place  and  give  a 
light  diet  for  several  days.  When  animal  has  fallen,  apply  cold  water  or  ice  to 
the  head,  rub  the  limbs  and  body  with  straw  or  cloths  for  some  time.  If  the  ani- 
mal can  swallow  give  three  teaspoonfuls  of  strong  ammonia  in  a  quart  of  cold 
water,  \l/2  ounces  aqua  ammonia  will  be  found  just  as  good.  If  the  animal  can- 
not swallow,  inject  the  ammonia  and  water  into  the  rectum.  Help  the  animal  to 
the  nearest  shelter  as  soon  as  it  can  rise  and  give  it  all  the  cold  water  it  will 
drink.  Repeat  the  ammonia  and  water  twice  at  half  hour  intervals,  then  each 
three  hours  until  strength  returns.  Give  bran  slops  and  a  little  grass  for  several 
days.  Where  the  animal  has  been  unconscious  but  strength  has  returned,  12 
ounces  of  Epsom  salts  in  a  quart  of  warm  water  may  be  given. 

Texas  Fever. 

This  is  a  blood  disease  caused  by  indirect  infection.  Cattle  from  an  infected 
district  first  infect  pastures,  cars,  pens,  etc.,  where  other  cattle  obtain  the  infection 
secondhand.  The  ticks  which  adhere  to  the  infected  cattle  are  the  only  known 
means  of  carrying  the  infection  to  other  cattle.  The  tick  is  essentially  a  parasite. 
It  obtains  its  food  when  attached  to  the  skin  of  cattle  and  can  mature  no  place 
else.  The  female  drops  to  the  ground  and  lays  a  large  number  of  eggs  which 
hatch  in  from  three  to  six  weeks  according  to  the  temperature.  When  hatched 
the  tick  soon  finds  its  way  on  to  cattle  and  growth  begins.  Cattle  may  have  Texas 
fever  in  one  week  after  the  young  ticks  get  on  them. 


98  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Symptoms. — There  is  dullness,  loss  of  appetite,  the  animal  stands  alone, 

"high  fever  appears,  later  the  urine  has  a  deep  red  color,  rapid  loss  of  strength 

and  death.     The  dung  becomes  soft  and  deeply  tinged  with  bile.     As  the  end 

approaches  the  animal  gets  very  thin,  may  lie  down  much  of  the  time  and  appear 

stupid. 

Treatment. — No  satisfaction  of  a  permanent  nature  is  secured  from  the 
use  of  medicines.  Animals  may  be  freed  of  ticks  in  two  ways.  They  may  be 
treated  with  an  agent  that  will  kill  all  the  ticks  present,  or  they  may  be  rotated  on 
tick-free  fields  until  all  the  ticks  have  dropped.  All  the  ticks  will  drop  from  cattle 
placed  on  tick-free  soil  in  from  six  to  ten  weeks  according  to  temperature.  The 
time  required  to  free  pastures  from  ticks  by  starvation  is  from  eight  to  ten  months 
according  to  climate  and  temperature.  To  do  this  all  animals  must  be  kept  from 
the  field  for  this  period. 

Grease  the  limbs  and  sides  of  the  cattle  with  crude  petroleum  or  cotton 
seed  oil.  This  helps  to  prevent  the  ticks  crawling  onto  the  body.  Smear  a 
mixture  consisting  of  one  pound  sulphur,  one  gallon  of  kerosene,  and  one  gal- 
lon cotton  seed  oil.  Do  this  three  times  each  week  during  the  tick  season. 

Tuberculosis. 

This  germ,  called  tubercle  bacillus,  gains  entrance  to  the  body,  lodges  in  the 
tissues  and  begins  to  grow  and  multiply  at  that  point.  As  they  spread  through 
the  body  they  cause  the  formation  of  many  small  knob-like  masses.  These  masses 
unite  and  often  form  tubercular  material  of  great  size. 

Symptoms. — A  short  dull  cough  is  noticed  when  the  lungs  are  involved. 
As  the  disease  progresses  the  animal  grows  thin,  the  skin  grows  harsh,  eyes 
sink  in  their  sockets,  quality  of  milk  lessens  and  there  is  tenderness  of  chest 
when  pressure  is  applied. 

Treatment. — Treatment  is  not  seriously  considered.  However,  many 
cases  can  be  prevented.  Great  care  should  be  given  to  the  feed,  surroundings  and 
breeding  of  the  animal,  so  it  may  resist  infection  when  exposed  to  it.  Apply  the 
tuberculin  test  to  all  strange  cattle  before  permitting  their  entrance  into  the  herd. 
Do  not  allow  healthy  cattle  to  stay  near  an  infected  one.  After  slaughtering  the 
affected  animal,  scrub  and  disinfect  the  stables  and  walls.  Remove  all  manure 
and  disinfect.  A  rigid  exclusion  of  tuberculous  animals  will  prevent  the  appear- 
ance of  the  disease. 

Tuberculin  Test. — Stable  and  feed  cattle  as  usual.  Examine  each  one  and 
give  a  number  by  which  it  will  be  known  during  the  test.  Take  the  temperature 
three  or  four  times  at  two  hour  intervals  on  day  of  injection.  At  8  or  10  p.  m. 
inject  a  dose  of  tuberculin  under  the  skin  in  the  region  of  the  shoulder.  First 
disinfect  the  skin  at  point  of  injection  with  a  5  percent  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
or  any  good  antiseptic  solution.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dilute  the  tuberculin  made 
by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Husbandry ;  the  dose  is  2  cubic  centimeters  for  a  grown 
cow.  Yearlings  and  2-year-olds  may  receive  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  cubic  cen- 
timeters. Extra  large  animals  and  bulls  may  receive  3  cubic  centimeters. 
Begin  taking  temperatures  the  next  day  at  6  a.  m.,  and  continue  two  or 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE— TREATMENT 


99 


A  TI  HI:K<  i  i.osrs  DAIRY  row 

Such    mule    up*)    tuhcrclr    bacilli    »lmo»t    without    txrtption    with 
thrir  (rrr«   und   »ith   »  mute  tin!  that   t»  drolled,   ilobbcrn!  »nd  uprmrrf 


Tubcrculoi-is   of    I'l.nr.i    <><   a   (o».   Sn-rnllrd  " 


100  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

three  hours  until  the  twentieth  hour  after  injection,  or  until  4  or  6  in  the  after- 
noon. If  the  temperature  shows  no  tendency  to  rise,  the  test  may  cease  If  there 
is  a  rise  of  two  or  more  degrees  Fahrenheit  above  the  highest  temperature  of 
the  preceding  day,  providing  the  temperature  exceeds  103-8  degrees  F.,  it  should 
be  taken  as  an  indication  of  tuberculosis. 

Vaginal  Rupture  or  Hernia. 

This  often  happens  during  pregnancy  from  chronic  relaxation  of  the  vaginal 
walls,  or  lying  in  stalls  that  are  higher  in  front  than  behind. 

Symptoms. — The  protrusion  is  smooth  and  of  a  rounded  form.  If  it  covers 
both  sides  of  the  canal  it  is  double,  with  a  passage  between. 

Treatment. — Sometimes  remedied  by  raising  the  hind  part  of  the  stall 
higher  than  the  front  part.  A  home-made  truss  may  be  applied  and  worn  until 
the  period  of  calving  approaches. 

Warts. 

A  hard,  dense  clublike  growth  on  the  skin. 

Treatment. — They  may  be  removed  with  the  scissors,  or  ligatured  by 
means  of  a  horse  hair  or  rubber  band.  Burn  the  roots  with  tincture  of  iron,  lunar 
caustic  or  glacial  acetic  acid.  Never  use  acid  near  the  mouth  or  eyes.  Give  young 
cattle  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic,  one  tablespoonf ul  twice  each  day  for  a  calf  six 
months  old. 

Yellows — Jaundice. 

It  may  arise  from  the  presence  of  gallstones  or  parasites  in  the  biliary  ducts. 
These  close  up  the  ducts  and  the  bile,  which  then  passes  into  the  intestines, 
may  be  absorbed  and  cause  the  yellow  staining  of  jaundice.  This  happens 
when  there  is  an  inactive  condition  of  bowels  as  in  constipation.  A  swollen 
condition  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  small  intestine  may  also  cause  the 
disease. 

Symptoms. — The  appetite  is  poor;  the  animal  drinks  very  little;  the  white 
of  eyes  and  lining  of  mouth  are  yellow,  the  urine  is  yellow  or  brown ;  animal  lies 
down  and  moans  when  it  moves ;  it  staggers  when  it  walks.  •  Pressure  on  the 
short  ribs  on  the  right  side  produces  pain. 

Treatment. — Move  the  bowels  by  giving  one  pound  of  sulphate  of  soda, 
one  pint  of  molasses  and  one  quart  of  warm  water.  Follow  this  with  a  heaping 
tablespoonf  ul  of  artificial  Carlsbad  salt  in  the  feed  three  times  daily.  Give  injec- 
tions of  warm  soapy  water.  Give  laxative  diet  like  coarse  bran  mash,  pulped 
roots  and  grass  or  hay  in  moderate  quantities. 


HORSE   PRODUCTION. 


Types  and  Market  Classes. — Horses  of  various  types  are  indispensable 
in  spite  of  the  large  number  of  automobiles  and  auto  trucks.  The  farm  and 
other  lines  of  industry  will  always  require  a  given  amount  of  horse  labor. 
Horses  suitable  for  serving  different  purposes  must  continue  to  be  produced 
and  the  farm  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  places  to  produce  them. 

The  height,  weight,  form,  action  and  disposition  of  the  horse  signifies  its 
type.  Its  usefulness  and  market  value  will  depend  upon  which  of  the  several 
types  it  represents  and  upon  its  age,  soundness,  condition  and  ability  to  work. 
The  market  value  will  further  depend  upon  the  supply  and  demand.  The  more 
common  types  of  horses  furnish  the  greater  supply  and  sell  at  the  lowest  prices. 
Misfits,  or  horses  that  do  not  conform  to  definite  market  types,  are  difficult  to 
sell.  There  is  a  demand  and  an  established  market  for  types  of  horses  suitable 
for  doing  definite  kinds  of  work.  Such  horses  are  bought  and  sold  on  general 
markets  under  classes  and  subclasses  that  are  named  and  briefly  described  in 
the  following  tabulation : 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  SUB-CLASSES  OF  HORSES.* 


Classes. 

Sub-Classes. 

Height, 
Hands. 

Weight, 
Pounds. 

[Light  Draft  

15-3  -  16-2 

1600  to  1750 

Draft  Horses  

]  Heavy  Draft  

16-0  -  17-2 

1750  to  2200 

1  Loggers  .  . 

16-1  -  17-2 

1700  to  2200 

Chunks  .              ... 

[Eastern  and  Export  Chunks  . 
\  Farm  Chunks  

15-0  -  16-0 
15-0  -  15-3 

1300  to  1550 
1200  to  1400 

[Southern  Chunks  

15-0  -  15-3 

800  to  1250 

f  Expressers  

15-3  -  16-2 

1350  to  1500 

Wagon  Horses 

J  Delivery  Wagon       

15-0  -  16-0 

1100  to  1400 

1  Artillery  Horses  

15-1  -  16-0 

1050  to  1200 

[Fire  Horses  

15-0  -  17-2 

1200  to  1700 

fCoach  

15-1  -  16-1 

1100  to  1250 

Carriage  Horses         .  .  . 

1  Cobs      

14-1  -  15-1 

900  to  1150 

]  Park  Horses  

15-0  -  15-3 

1000  to  1150 

[Cab.  .             

15-2  -  16-1 

1050  to  1200 

Road  Horses  

/Runabout  

14-3  -  15-2 

900  to  1050 

\Roadster  

15-0-  16-0 

900  to  1150 

[Five-gaited  Saddler  

15-0-  16-0 

900  to  1200 

Saddle  Horses     

\  Three-gaited  Saddler/  Light  .  \ 
[                                  '  \Heavy/ 
Light     } 
f  Hunters  \  Middle  \  

14-3-16-0 
15-2  -  16-1 

900  to  1200 
1000  to  1250 

[Heavy  J 
)  Cavalry  Horses       

15-0  -  15-3 

950  to  1100 

[Polo  Ponies  

14-0  -  14-2 

850  to  1000 

*  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin  No.  122. 


101 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


It  only  pays  to  breed  horses  of  a  definite  type  and  character.  Prices  paid 
on  the  Chicago  market  for  the  different  classes  of  horses  for  the  year  1916. 
show  the  trend  of  market  values.  Horses  five  to  eight  years  of  age,  sound, 
in  good  condition  for  hard  work  and  of  colors  easily  matched,  sell  for  the 
best  prices. 

MONTHLY  AVERAGE  PRICE  OF  HORSES  FOR  YEAR  1916. 


Month 

Draft 
Horses 

Carriage 
Horses* 

Drivers 

General 
Use 

Bussers 
and 
Trammers 

Saddlers 

Chunks 

January  

$210 

$435 

$160 

$145 

$165 

$185 

$  95 

February  

220 

475 

165 

150 

175 

195 

100 

March  

225 

490 

170 

155 

180 

200 

110 

April  

225 

490 

170 

155 

180 

200 

110 

May  

220 

490 

165 

155 

175 

195 

100 

June     

215 

490 

165 

150 

170 

195 

100 

July  

210 

485 

165 

145 

170 

190 

95 

August  

205 

475 

160 

140 

165 

185 

90 

September  

200 

460 

155 

140 

165 

180 

85 

October  

200 

450 

150 

140 

165 

175 

90 

November  

205 

450 

150 

140 

160 

175 

90 

December  

200 

450 

150 

140 

160 

170 

95 

Average,  1916.  .  .  . 

210 

470 

160 

146 

169 

187 

96 

*  Prices  are  for  pairs. 


Breeds  of  Horses. 


The  best  types  of  horses  show  a  predominance  of  breed  character.  Breed 
and  feed  are  the  principal  factors  that  determine  type.  The  table  on  pages  103 
and  104  names  and  furnishes  a  brief  description  of  the  more  important  breeds 
of  horses  bred  and  maintained  in  America  at  the  present  time. 

Draft  vs.  Light  Breeds  on  the  Farm. — Market  values  and  the  fact  that 
heavy  weight  and  ability  to  work  are  the  principal  features  demanded  in  the 
breeds  of  draft  horses,  make  it  appear  that,  under  ordinary  conditions,  horses 
of  the  draft  type  are  best  for  the  farmer  to  produce.  Much  of  the  value  of  the 
lighter  classes  of  horses  is  developed  by  training,  which  the  farmer  is  not 
always  in  the  best  position  to  give.  Light  horses  that  have  to  do  heavy  work 
do  not  have  the  opportunity  to  develop  gaits,  manners  and  a  spirit  that  makes 
them  attractive  and  are  also  rendered  unsalable  by  accidents  resulting  in 
blemishes.  Furthermore,  the  automobiles  and  auto  truck  have  taken  the 
places  of  the  lighter  classes  of  horses  to  a  much  larger  extent  than  they  have 
for  horses  of  the  draft  breeds. 

Breeding  the  Draft  Horse. — A  weight  of  1600  Ibs.  or  over,  feet,  limbs  and 
body  of  sound  character,  a  compact  form  with  strength  and  quality,  and  a 
disposition  that  is  kind  and  intelligent,  are  the  more  essential  features  of  a 
good  draft  horse.  "Like  produces  like"  and,  therefore,  the  production  of 
desirable  draft  horses  is  secured  by  the  selection  of  mares  of  grade  or  draft 
breeding  free  from  hereditary  unsoundnesses,  mating  them  to  pure  bred  draft 
stallions  of  the  most  approved  types,  and  rearing  the  foals  in  a  manner  to 


HORSE  PRODUCTION 


103 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  HORSES. 


Type 

Breed 

Nativity 

Weight 

Height 
Hands 

Color  and 
Characteristics 

Belgian. 

Belgium. 

1500-2000 
1200-1800 

15.3-17 

Bay,  roan,  chestnut,  brown, 
black,  gray.  Body  com- 
pact, deep,  heavily  mus- 
cled. Legs  short  and 
clean. 

T)roft 

Clydesdale. 

Scotland. 

1800-2100 
1500-1800 

16    -17 

Bay,  black,  chestnut,  roan, 
brown  with  white  on  face 
and  legs.  Feather  on 
legs.  Intelligent;  good 
action. 

Percheron. 

France. 

1700-2200 
1500-1800 

15.3-17 

Gray,  black,  bay,  brown, 
roan,  chestnut.  Legs 
clean.  Intelligent;  good 
action.  Most  popular 
draft  horse  in  America. 

Shire. 

England. 

1800-2400 
1600-1800 

16-17.3 

Bay,  brown,  chestnut,  roan, 
black  with  white  on  face 
and  legs.  Feather  on 
legs.  Feet  and  bone 
large.  Heaviest  of  draft 
breeds. 

Suffolk. 

England. 

1600-2000 

16-16.2 

Chestnut.  Legs  clean.  Body 
broad  and  deep.  Small- 
est of  draft  breeds. 

Coach,  Carriage, 
or 
Heavy  Harness  

Hackney. 

England. 

750-1300 

13.2-16 

Any  color.  Extremely  high 
action.  Good  feet.  Type 
ranges  from  pony  to 
heavy  coach. 

French 
Coach. 

France. 

1300-1475 
1100-1300 

15.2-16 

Bay,  black,  chestnut.  Clean 
limbs.  High  action.  Body 
long. 

German 
Coach. 

Germany. 

1350-1475 

16-16.2 

Black,  bay,  brown.  Legs, 
clean.  Feet  excellent. 
Body  comparatively  deep. 

Cleveland 
Bay. 

England. 

1250-1550 

16-16.3 

Bay  with  black  legs,  mane 
and  tail.  Legs  clean. 
Head  quite  large.  Larg- 
est of  coach  breeds. 

Roadster  or  Light 
Harness  

Standard 
Bred. 

United 
States. 

1000-1200 

15-16 

Bay,  brown,  black,  chest- 
nut, gray.  Feet  good.  Body 
comparatively  deep.Trot- 
ters  or  pacers.  Remark- 
able speed  and  endur- 
ance. Highly  intelligent. 

Orloff. 

Russia. 

1000-1300 

15.3-16 

Gray,  white,  black,  chest- 
nut, bay.  Substantial  in 
size  and  type. 

Morgan. 

United 

States. 

950-1100 

14-15 

A  branch  of  the  American 
Standard-bred.  A  sturdy 
roadster  type. 

104 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  HORSES— Continued. 


Type 

Breed 

Nativity 

Weight 

Height 
Hands 

Color  and 
Characteristics 

Bay,  brown,  chestnut. 

Thorough- 
bred. 

England. 

900-1050 

14.2-16 

Head,   small;    neck,   long. 
Muscular     and     speedy. 

Saddle 

Excels  in  running  races. 

American 
Saddle 
Horses 

United 

States. 

950-1150 

15-16 

Bay,  black,  chestnut,  gray. 
Highly  intelligent.     Ex- 
treme  action   and   style 

with  numerous  gaits. 

Color  variable  —  piebald  or 

Shetland. 

Shetland 
Islands. 

200-350 

9-10.2 

spotted    quite    common. 
A  miniature  draft  horse 
in    type.      Ears,    short; 

hair,  abundant. 

Color,   variable.     A  small 

coach     horse     in     type. 

Pony.  .  . 

Welsh. 

Wales. 

600-1000 

12-15 

Prominent  in  style    ac- 

tion, and  endurance. 

Variable  in  color  and  size. 

Mustang 
Broncho. 

America. 

600-1000 

Under 
14.2 

Remarkable  in  endurance 
Often    high    class    and 
attractive. 

Small,   with  general   char- 

Hackney. 

England. 

750-800 

Under. 
14.1 

acteristics  of  the  Hack- 
ney horse. 

secure  a  maximum  normal  growth.  Diseases  like  heaves,  roaring,  moon- 
blindness  and  weakened,  malformed  limbs  predisposed  to  curbs,  spavins,  ring- 
bone and  other  diseases  of  the  feet  and  limbs  and  which  are  hereditary,  should 
be  avoided  both  in  the  mare  and  in  the  stallion. 

Breeding  Light  Horses. — Particular  emphasis  must  be  placed  upon  purity 
of  breeding  and  breeding  in  line  where  one  undertakes  to  produce  light  horses. 
This  system  of  breeding  is  highly  essential  to  the  successful  production  of 
this  type  of  horses.  Families  or  strains  that  have  excelled  in  the  type,  quality, 
disposition  and  spirit  desirable  must  be  depended  upon.  A  carriage  horse  is 
heavier  than  the  roadster,  but  weight  is  less  important  than  style  and  action 
in  both  types.  Cold  blooded,  indifferent  light  horses  are  misfits  incapable  of 
high  development  and  may  be  regarded  unprofitable. 

Judging  Horses. — It  is  important  to  be  able  to  judge  a  horse  and  know 
his  value.  One's  ability  to  exercise  good  judgment  in  the  selectior)  of  horses 
is  developed  largely  by  learning  to  know  all  the  parts  of  the  horse  and  their 
relationship  to  one  another  in  forming  a  well-balanced  body.  With  this  there 
must  be  the  proper  disposition,  energy  and  training  that  combines  to  enable 
the  horse  to  do  its  work  efficiently.  Practice  makes  perfect  when  one  has 
learned  the  parts  and  disposition  of  horses  and  acquired  the  ability  to  observe 


HORSE  PRODUCTION 


105 


carefully  and  quickly  and  arrive  at  a  judgment.  The  parts  of  the  horse  named 
in  the  accompanying  score  card  for  light  and  draft  horses,  together  with  the 
discussion  of  diseases  and  blemishes,  should  enable  one  to  acquire  the  art  of 


1.  Muzzle. 

2.  Lips. 

3.  Nostril. 

4.  Face. 

5.  Eye. 

6.  Forehead. 

7.  Foretop. 

8.  Ears. 

9.  Poll. 

10.  JaW. 

11.  Throatlatch. 

12.  Neck. 

13.  Crest. 

14.  Withers. 

15.  Shoulder. 

16.  Breast. 

17.  Point  of  shoulder. 


Parts  of  the  Horse. 

18.  Arm. 

19.  Elbow. 

20.  Fore  flank. 

21.  Forearm. 

22.  Knee. 

23.  Cannon. 

24.  Fetlock  joint. 

25.  Pastern. 

26.  Coronet. 

27.  Hoof. 

28.  Seat  of  sidebone. 

29.  Seat  of  splint. 

30.  Chestnut. 

31.  Abdomen. 

32.  Ribs. 

33.  Back. 

34.  Loin. 


35.  Point  of  hip. 

36.  Coupling. 

37.  Hind  flank. 

38.  Sheath. 

39.  Stifle  joint. 

40.  Seat  of  thoroughpin. 

41.  Seat  of  bog  spavin. 

42.  Seat  of  bone  spavin. 

43.  Seat  of  ringbone. 

44.  Seat  of  curb. 

45.  Hock. 

46.  Gaskln. 
47    Thigh. 

48.  Quarter. 

49.  Croup.. 

50.  Point  of  buttoclr. 

51.  Tail. 


judging  horses  and  be  competent  to  make  selections  without  chances  for  loss 
or  disappointment. 

The  Brood  Mare. — It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  use  mares  retired  from  work 
because  of  unsoundness  or  old  age  for  breeding  purposes.     The  best  plan  for 


106 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  DRAFT  HORSES. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
score 

Points  deficient 

Points  deficient 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE—  30  POINTS 
Height,  16  hands  or  over  

Weight,  1,500  Ibs.  or  over  

Weight                           

6 
6 

6 
10 
2 

2 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 

2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
3 

8 

Form,  broad,   massive,  evenly  proportioned, 
svmmetrical,  blocky  

Quality,  refined;  bone  clean,  large,  strong;  ten- 
dons, clean,  defined,  prominent  ;  skin  and  hair 
fine;  "feather,"  if  present,  silky  

Action,  walk,  fast,  elastic,  regular,  straight; 
trot,  free,  springy,  balanced,  straight  

Temperament,  energetic;  disposition,  good  

HEAD  AND  NECK—  10  POINTS 

Head,  proportionate  size,  clean  cut,  well  car- 
ried; profile  straight  

Forehead,  broad  full  

Eyes,  bright,  clear,  full,  same  color  

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried,  alert  

Muzzle,  neat;  nostrils  large,  flexible;  lips  thin, 
even,  firm  

Lower  Jaw,  angles  wide,  space  clean  

Neck,  muscled,  arched;  throat-latch,  fine,  wind- 
pipe large  .  . 

FOREQUARTERS—  20  POINTS 

Shoulders,  moderately  sloping,  smooth,  snug, 
extending  well  back  

Arm,  short,  strong  muscled,  thrown  back,  well 
set  

Forearm,  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled.  .  .  . 
Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean  

Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  clean,  de- 
fined, prominent  

Fetlock,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean  

Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean  .... 
Feet,  large,  even  size,  sound;  horn  dense,  waxy; 
soles  concave;  bars  strong,  full;  frogs  large, 
elastic;  heels  wide,  one-half  length  of  toe  .... 

HORSE  PRODUCTION 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  DRAFT  HORSES— Continued. 


107 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
score 

Points  deficient  v 

Points  deficient 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

BODY—  10  POINTS 
Chest,  deep,  wide;  breast  bone,  low;  girth,  large 
Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip.  .  . 
Back,  broad,  strong,  muscular  

2 
2 
2 
2 

2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 
8 
2 
1 
2 

6 

1 

Loins,  short,  wide,  thick  muscled  

Underline,  low,  flanks  full  

HINDQUARTERS—  30  POINTS 

Hips,  broad,  smooth,  level,  well  muscled  

Croup,  wide,  heavily  muscled,  not  markedly 
drooping  

Thighs,  deep,  broad,  strong,  muscular  

Quarters,  plump  with  muscle,  deep  

Stifles,  large,  strong,  muscular,  clean  

Gaskins,    (lower   thighs,)    long,    wide,    clean, 
heavily  muscled  

Hocks,  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean,  well  set  . 
Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  clean,  de- 
fined, prominent  '.  .  .  . 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean  

• 

Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean  .... 
Feet,  large,   even  size,   sound;   horn,    dense, 
waxy;  soles  concave;  bars  strong,  full;  frogs 
large,  elastic;  heels,  wide,  one-half  length  of 
toe,  vertical  to  ground  

• 

Total  

100 

(Score  card  used  at  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture,  Madison,  Wis.) 

the  farmer  is  to  have  one  or  more  mares  of  the  best  individuality  and  keep 
them  raising  foals,  year  after  year,  as  long  as  they  are  successful  in  doing  so. 

The  Pregnant  Mare. — Exercise  is  necessary  and  one  of  the  things  often 
neglected  especially  during  the  winter  season  in  caring  for  the  brood  mare  that 
is  in  foal.  It  is  best  to  work  the  mare  under  conditions  that  insure  against 
overwork  and  strains  that  result  from  too  heavy  loads.  The  mare  foals  48 
weeks  or  about  340  days  after  the  time  of  service.  During  this  time  she  should 
occupy  a  comfortable  stall  and  when  she  begins  to  show  signs  of  being  in 


108 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  LIGHT  HORSES. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
score 

Points  deficient 

Points  deficient 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

• 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE—  30  POINTS 
Weight,  estimated  in  Ibs  

Height,  estimated  in  hands  

Height,  15  hands  or  over  

2 
5 
5 
15 
3 

2 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 

3 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 
3 

6 

Form,  type  —  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish  

Quality,  refined;  bone  clean,  fine,  tendons  clean, 
defined,  prominent  ;  hair  and  skin  fine  

Action,  walk,  long,  fast,  elastic,  regular,  straight; 
trot,  rapid,  regular,  straight,  balanced  

Temperament,  active,  disposition  good  

HEAD  AND  NECK—  10  POINTS 

Head,  proportionate,  well  carried,  features  well 
defined  profile  straight  

Forehead,  broad,  full  

Eyes,  full  bright,  clear,  large,  same  color  

Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  alert  .  . 
Muzzle,  neat,  nostrils  large,  flexible;  lips  thin, 
firm,  even  

Lower  Jaw,  angles  wide,  space  clean  

Neck,  muscled,  arched;  throat-latch  fine;  wind- 
pipe large                             

FOREQUARTERS—  20  POINTS 

Shoulder,  long,  sloping,  smooth,  extending  well 
back                                       

Arm,  short,  strong  muscled,  thrown  back,  well 
get                                              

Forearm,  long  wide  clean  muscled  

Knees,   straight,   wide,   deep,   strong,   clean, 
strongly  supported  

Cannons,  short,  clean,  wide;  tendons  large, 
hard  clean  prominent  

Fetlocks  wide  straight  strong,  clean  

Pasterns  lengthy  sloping  strong  clean  

Feet,  medium  size,  even,  sound;  horn  dense, 
waxy;  soles  concave;  bars  strong,  full;  frogs 
large,  elastic,  heels,  wide,  one-half  length  of 

toe                            

HORSE  PRODUCTION 


109 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  LIGHT  HORSES— Continued. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
score 

Points  Deficient 

Points   deficient 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

BODY—  10  POINTS 
Withers,  high,  extending  well  back  

1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
1 

2 
2 
1 
3 
1 
2 
2 
7 
2 
1 
3 

4 

Chest,  deep,  low  ;  girth  large  

Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung  

Back,  broad,  strong,  muscular  

Loins,  short,  wide,  thick  muscled,  close  coupled  . 
Underline,  low,  flanks  full,  well  let  down  

HINDQUARTERS—  30  POINTS 
Hips,  smooth,  wide  level  

Croup,  long,  wide  muscular,  not  drooping  

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried  

Thighs,  deep  broad,  strong,  muscular  

Quarters,  deep,  plump  with  muscle  

Stifles,  strong,  muscular,  clean  

Gaskins,  (lower  thighs)  long,  wide,  muscular  .  .  . 

Hocks,  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean,  well  set  . 
Cannons,  short,   clean,   wide;  tendons  large, 
hard,  clean,  prominent  -.  .  .  . 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean  

Pasterns,  strong  sloping,  springy,  clean  

Feet,  medium  size,  even,  sound;  horn,  dense, 
waxy;  soles  concave;  bars  strong;  full;  frogs, 
large  elastic*  heels  wide                 

Total                                       .                 .... 

100 

(Score  card  used  at  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture,  Madison,  Wis.) 

foal,  a  box  stall  well  ventilated  and  as  comfortable  as  it  can  be  made  should 
be  provided.  A  mare  never  should  be  allowed  to  'foal  in  a  narrow  stall  or  too 
small  a  box  stall.  The  stall  should  be  kept  clean,  dry  and  well  bedded.  In 
the  warmer  seasons  of  the  year  it  is  better  for  mares  to  foal  in  a  secreted  place 
in  the  pasture  field  rather  than  in  an  unsuitable  stall. 


110  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


DELWART'S  TRUSS 

This  supports  vagina  and  prevents  escape  of  womb  when  after 
pains  following  parturition  cause  heavy  straining. 


HORSE  PRODUCTION 


111 


Stall  Suitable  for  Mare  Foaling. — Stalls  12  x  12  feet  and  preferably  14  x 
14  feet  should  be  provided  for  brood  mares.  An  absolutely  clean  foaling 
place  is  necessary,  to  safeguard  the  foal  against  infection  resulting  in  navel 
and  joint  disease.  To  prepare  the  stall  for  foaling  and  to  insure  against  in- 
fection it  is  recommended  that  the  floor  be  scraped  and  cleansed  and  sprinkled 
with  a  1  to  50  solution  of  coal  tar  disinfectant  or  a  solution  of  four  ounces  of 


Hind  Feet  First 
NORMAL  PRESENTATIONS 

Furnished  by  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

sulphate  of  copper  (blue  stone),  to  one  gallon  of  hot  water,  or  a  1  to  1,000 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Follow  the  cleansing  with  a  coat  of  lime 
whitewash  to  each  gallon  of  which  has  been  added  1-3  of  a  pound  of  chloride 
of  lime.  Bed  the  stall  with  fresh,  dry  straw  that  is  free  from  chaff  and  dust 
and  keep  it  as  clean  as  possible  until  the  mare  has  foaled. 

The  Mare  at  Foaling  Time. — As  foaling  time  approaches  the  mare  should 
be  given  lighter  work  and  the  ration  decreased.    Laxative  foods  to  keep  the  bowels 


112  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

acting  freely  should  be  supplied.  Bran  and  a  little  flaxseed  meal,  carrots  or  roots 
produce  a  laxative  condition  and  relieve  constipation  which  must  be  avoided. 
About  three  days  before  foaling  wax  will  form  on  the  teats.  At  this  time  the 
mare  should  occupy  the  box  stall  prepared  for  foaling,  and  be  watched  until  the 
foal  is  born. 

Watch  the  mare  from  a  distance  where  she  will  not  be  disturbed  or  excited 
by  one's  presence  when  she  has  gone  approximately  her  full  gestation  period  and 
there  are  indications  that  she  is  about  to  foal.  Ordinarily  no  assistance  in  foaling 
is  necessary  and  the  mare  should  be  left  alone.  It  pays,  however,  to  be  where  as- 
sistance can  be  given  if  necessary. 

If  conditions  are  normal  it  is  best  to  leave  the  mare  alone  for  a  time  after 
she  has  foaled.  If  the  afterbirth  does  not  come  away  within  an  hour,  or  two,  it 
should  be  removed.  One  experienced  in  doing  this  should  perform  the  work.  In 
all  instances  the  afterbirth  should  be  removed  from  the  stall  as  soon  as  it  comes 
away  from  the  mare.  The  stall  should  also  be  cleaned  and  fresh  bedding  supplied. 

Delivering  Hind  Feet  of  Colt  First. — To  meet  this  situation  first  tie  a 
strap  tightly  around  the  breast  of  the  mare  to  stop  her  straining.  Then  you 
can  get  your  arm  into  the  vagina,  turn  the  colt  around  and  save  the  life  of  both 
the  mare  and  the  colt. — Recommended  by  Will  Perry,  De Witt;  Iowa,  Route  1. 

Labor  Pains  Coming  on  Before  Mouth  of  Womb  is  Relaxed. — When  this 
happens  pass  the  hand  into  the  vagina  and  dilate  the  opening  of  the  womb.  Use 
the  thumb  and  finger  at  first  but  later  the  hand.  Be  sure  the  nails  are  short  and 
the  hand  is  well  oiled  with  carbolic  acid  and  sweet  oil  or  vaseline  (1  part  to  10  of 
oil  or  vaseline)  before  the  hand  is  passed. 

When  to  Assist  Most. — Assist  the  mother  when  she  is  making  an  effort 
herself.  Remember  a  delivery  cannot  be  accomplished  unless  you  are  pulling  on 
both  forefeet  or  both  hind  ones. 

Calf  or  Colt  Dropsical. — If  the  calf  or  colt  is  found  dropsical  push  it  back, 
take  your  knife  and  tap  its  belly  and  then  help  finish  the  delivery. 

Water  on  Head  of  Foetus. — If  water  is  found  on  the  head  of  the  foetus 
it  should  be  tapped  with  a  small  knife  or  small  trocar. 

Feet  or  Head  of  Calf  or  Foal  Turned  Back. — When  this  occurs  push  the 
foetus  back  into  position,  arrange  the  parts  as  they  should  be  and  produce  a  nat- 
ural delivery.  The  back  quarters  of  the  mother  should  be  raised  almost  a  foot 
before  this  operation  is  begun.  It  makes  delivery  easier  many  times  in  such  cases 
if  pieces  of  soft  rope  are  tied  around  the  feet  and  head  of  the  foetus  before  it  is 
pushed  back.  One  should  remember  which  ropes  are  on  the  feet  and  which  one 
is  on  the  head. 

Cleanliness. — In  assisting  a  cow  or  mare  one  should  always  have  his  hands 
perfectly  clean  and  should  use  disinfectants  to  kill  all  germs. 

Care  in  Assisting  at  Birth. — One  should  always  be  careful  in  helping  the 
mare  or  cow  as  the  parts  are  easily  injured.  Be  sure  the  fingernails  are  short 
and  smooth. 

Offer  the  mare  a  pailful  of  lukewarm  water  a  half  hour  after  the  birth  of 
the  foal  and  again  at  intervals  of  two  hours,  Blanket  her  if  the  stable  is  at  all 


HORSE  PRODUCTION 


113 


114  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

cold  and  there  is  danger  of  her  becoming  chilled.  If  she  is  accustomed  to  a  mash 
of  steamed  feed  such  a  feed  of  oats  and  bran  may  be  fed  an  hour  after  foaling, 
otherwise  give  her  a  small  feed  of  her  ordinary  grain  ration.  Under  favorable 
conditions  the  mare  in  foal  may  be  exercised  after  a  few  days  and  in  12  to  15 
days  she  should  be  recovered  from  foaling  and  able  to  resume  light  work. 

Feed  for  the  Brood  Mare. — Properly  feeding  the  brood  mare  insures 
success  in  developing  a  strong,  well  developed  foal.  During  pregnancy  she  should 
be  fed  sound,  whole  oats,  pure  wheat  bran  and  mixed  clover  or  timothy  hay.  A 
few  ears  of  corn  with  the  oats  and  bran  will  keep  her  in  good  condition  and  give 
strength  to  the  foal.  If  the  mare  is  idle,  feed  hay  night  and  morning,  and  bright, 
dry  fodder  or  other  good  roughage  at  noon  scattered  in  the  field  or  paddock,  when 
weather  permits  her  to  be  out.  One  feed  of  hay  at  night,  one  feed  of  corn  stalks 
and  access  to  a  rack  of  bright  straw  and  a  few  ears  of  corn  daily  has  been  recom- 
mended as  a  suitable  ration  for  idle  mares.  Avoid  moldy  hay  or  silage,  damaged 
grain,  fodder  or  rusted  straw.  Give  plenty  of  pure,  fresh  water.  Allow  free 
access  to  salt  if  mare  has  been  accustomed  to  it,  otherwise  feed  salt  in  limited 
quantities  until  she  has  become  satisfied  and  may  have  free  access  to  it  without 
overeating.  Do  not  allow  the  mare  to  become  too  fat,  but  keep  her  in  fair  flesh, 
and  do  not  let  her  condition  indicate  too  scanty  a  ration. 

Oats  and  bran  in  equal  bulk  and  %.  in  bulk  of  corn,  makes  a  good  ration  for 
a  mare  in  milk.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  moisten  this  before  feeding  if  it  is  practic- 
able. Clover  or  alfalfa  hay  and  grass  pasture  in  season,  if  mare  can  be  turned  out, 
provide  most  suitable  roughages  for  keeping  up  a  good  milk  flow.  The  condition 
of  the  mare,  her  milk  flow  and  the  condition  of  the  colt,  should  govern  the  feeding, 
and  judgment  must  be  exercised  to  the  fullest  extent  possible. 

Care  of  Foal  at  Birth. — The  first  and  most  important  attention  to  give  to 
the  foal  is  to  see  that  the  navel  cord  has  been  properly  severed  and  disinfected. 
Navel  and  joint  disease,  from  which  many  colts  die,  gains  entrance  to  the  system 
through  the  navel  cord.  Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent  infection 
from  filth  or  germs  of  any  kind.  It  is  best  for  the  cord  to  break  off  naturally  in 
which  case  it  is  unnecessary  to  tie  it.  If  the  cord  has  to  be  cut,  disinfect  a  string  in 
five  percent  solution  of  lysol  or  carbolic  acid,  or  a  1-500  solution  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate (  bichloride  of  mercury),  tie  it  one  inch  from  the  body  and  cut  it  below 
the  knot.  Castrating  instruments,  the  emasculator  or  ecraseur,  if  at  hand,  may 
be  used  to  pinch  the  cord  off  and  thus  make  it  unnecessary  to  tie  the  cord. 

Whether  the  cord  is  tied  or  not  it  should  be  saturated  with  a  disinfectant 
twice  a  day  until  it  shrivels  up  and  no  raw  spot  remains.  Do  not  saturate  the 
body  of  the  foal.  Fresh  lard  or  vaseline  smeared  on  the  foal's  belly  will  prevent 
the  disinfectant  blistering  it. 

Solution  for  Saturating  Foal's  Navel. — The  following  disinfectant  has 
been  recommended  by  Dr.  A.  S.  Alexander,  of  the  Wisconsin  College  of  Agricul- 
ture, and  used  effectively : 

Powdered  corrosive  sublimate,  2  drams;  boiling  water  1  pint.  When  cool, 
color  the  solution  with  2  drams  of  tincture  of  iron.  The  solution  is  poison  and 
should  be  so  marked  and  kept  away  from  the  reach  of  children. 


HORSE  PRODUCTION 


115 


If  it  is  not  possible  to  use  this  solution  and  to  give  attention  to  foals  fre- 
quently, it  is  recommended  that  the  stump  of  the  navel  be  saturated  with  full 
strength  tincture  of  iodine  and  covered  with  a  dry  dressing  powder  composed  of 


ORGANS  OF  A  MARE 


1.  Uterus. 

2.  Horn  of  Uterus. 

3.  Anus. 

4.  Bladder. 
5.— 7.     Vulva. 
6.     Rectum. 


8  Vagina. 

9.  Kidney. 

10.  Oviduct  to  Uterus. 

11.  Abdominal  Muscle. 

12.  Ovary. 


Foal  With  Water  on  the  Brain. 

one  part  each  of  calomel,  powdered  alum  and  either  tannic  acid  or  starch  and  five 
parts  of  boric  acid.    Keep  the  navel  as  well  coated  with  the  powder  as  possible. 
A  supply  of  good  disinfectant  kept  on  hand  and  used  properly  at  foaling  time, 
will  insure  against  losses  that  are  more  or  less  certain  to  occur  without  them. 


116  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Caring  for  Weak  Foals. — A  strong  foal  will  be  on  its  feet  and  nursing  in 
a  very  short  time  and  requires  no  assistance.  Weak  foals  should  be  assisted  to 
suck  until  they  gain  enough  strength  to  do  so  alone. 

The  bowels  of  a  weak  foal  and  even  of  a  strong  one,  may  need  attention. 
If  there  is  not  a  prompt  bowel  movement,  give  an  injection  of  either  warm  water, 
sweet  oil  or  equal  parts  of  cream  and  molasses  and  warm  water.  A  small  rubber 
hose,  or  a  fountain  syringe  with  a  small  rubber  nozzle  is  best  to  use  in  giving  an 
injection.  A  dose  of  two  or  four  tablespoonfuls  of  castor  oil,  in  milk  should  be 
given  if  bowels  do  not  move  in  24  hours. 

Scouring  is  an  indication  of  bowel  trouble,  resulting  in  young  foals  from  in- 
digestion and  constipation  and  there  is  no  better  remedy  than  castor  oil  and  vary- 
ing the  ration  to  overcome  or  counteract  the  cause. 

Feeding  and  Weaning  the  Foal. — Draft  foals  should  make  one-half  their 
mature  weight  the  first  year  of  their  life.  To  accomplish  this  they  must  be  fed 
liberally.  Foals  should  be  accustomed  to  grain  before  five  months  of  age,  when 
they  are  usually  weaned.  After  weaning  the  following  ration  will  prove  success- 
ful until  they  are  turned  out  the  second  summer  at  13  to  15  months  of  age : 

Crushed  oats   65  Ibs. 

Corn  meal 15     " 

Bran    *. 10     " 

Finely  cut  alfalfa  or  clover 15     " 

Feed  all  of  this  mixture  they  will  eat  three  times  per  day.  No  other  hay 
is  necessary  until  they  are  one  year  old.  A  foal  will  eat  9  to  15  Ibs.  (20  to  30 
qts.)  daily,  according  to  the  age.  To  dampen  and  thoroughly  mix  the  feed  is  an 
advantage.  Where  one  is  not  in  a  position  to  feed  such  a  mixture,  a  ration  of  20 
parts  bran  and  cut  alfalfa  or  cut  clover  with  80  percent  crushed  oats  will  prove 
satisfactory.  Combinations  of  coarse  roughage  and  corn  should  be  avoided. 
Silage  is  not  a  good  feed  for  foals.  Allow  free  access  to  salt  and  provide  plenty 
of  fresh  water.  Exercise  is  very  essential  to  the  best  growth.  Well  bred  foals 
are  most  easily  fed  and  properly  developed  to  produce  types  that  are  most  satis- 
factory for  work  and  market  purposes. 

Raising  the  Orphan  Foal. — Occasionally  there  is  necessity  for  raising  a 
foal  by  hand.  This  may  be  done  successfully  by  exercising  patience  and  giving 
careful  attention  to  every  detail. 

Milk  low  in  butter  fat  from  a  cow  recently  fresh,  sweetened  with  molasses 
or  sugar,  diluted  with  warm  water  and  lime  water,  constitutes  the  feed  that  most 
closely  resembles  the  mare's  milk.  A  tablespoonful  of  sugar  with  warm  water 
enough  to  dissolve  it,  3  to  5  tablespoonfuls  of  lime  water  and  milk  enough  to 
make  a  pint,  would  be  a  proper  mixture  for  this  amount.  The  lime  water  tends 
to  correct  digestive  troubles  and  is  very  necessary.  At  first  the  foal  should  be 
fed  half  a  teacupful  every  hour.  Lengthen  the  feeding  periods  and  increase  the 
amount  gradually  as  the  colt  gains  strength.  In  a  few  days  feeding  six  times  a 
day  will  answer  and  later  four  times.  When  the  foal  is  5  to  6  weeks  old,  some 
skim  milk  may  gradually  be  added  to  the  feed  and  feeding  periods  be  reduced  to 


HORSE  PRODUCTION 


117 


three  daily.  Oatmeal  at  first  and  then  wheat  bran  should  be  offered  when  the 
colt  will  nibble  it  from  the  hand  of  the  attendant. 

In  case  of  scouring  reduce  the  amount  of  milk  and  give  castor  oil  treatment. 
Be  careful  not  to  overfeed  and  lay  emphasis  on  keeping  everything  sweet  and 
clean. 

Care  of  the  Foal's  Feet. — Under  natural  conditions  a  foal's  feet  may  be 
expected  to  grow  and  develop  normally  and  without  the  necessity  of  giving  them 
attention.  It  is  true,  however,  that  bad  feet,  ankles,  and  the  wrong  kind  of  action 
often  develop  as  a  result  of  the  feet  growing  unevenly  or  in  the  wrong  manner. 


Well  Developed  Draft  Foals. — Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture. 

They  should  be  watched  and  trimmed  whenever  there  is  an  opportunity  to  level 
them  at  the  bottom  or  keep  them  in  line  with  a  straightforward  action.  Do  not 
pare  the  foot  away  any  more  than  is  necessary  and  aim  to  grow  all  the  foot  pos- 
sible. 

Training  the  Foal. — The  horse  is  much  more  susceptible  to  training  than 
many  people  stop  to  consider.  Much  of  the  disposition  and  habit  of  a  horse  and 
the  ease  or  difficulty  with  which  he  is  handled  is  a  matter  of  acquirement.  It  is, 
therefore,  important  that  from  the  beginning  the  foal  be  handled  and  devel- 
oped in  a  manner  to  become  most  satisfactory  and  pleasing.  Regular  lessons  in 
teaching  the  foal  and  horse  what  is  expected  of  him  accompanied  with  firmness 
and  patience,  is  the  most  approved  system  of  training.  There  shouH  be  a  clear 
understanding  of  what  the  foal  is  to  do.  Avoid  confusion  by  not  trying  to  teach 
too  many  things  at  a  time.  Aim  to  develop  the  intelligence  and  confidence  of  the 


118  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

foal  rather  than  to  force  him  into  subjection  by  breaking  his  spirit  and  having 
him  obey  through  fear.  Guard  against  bad  habits  and  do  not  let  them  become 
fixed.  Mismanagement  and  the  want  of  something  better  to  do  are  the  cause 
of  most  bad  habits  in  horses.  Exercise  and  a  proper  amount  of  work  play  an 
important  part  in  the  training  and  development  of  all  classes  of  horses.  At  the 
age  when  the  foal  may  begin  to  work,  two  and  a  half  to  three  years,  be  particu- 
larly careful  not  to  overwork  him.  Reserving  his  strength  will  result  in  a  more 
complete  development  and  a  longer  lifetime  of  the  most  satisfactory  service. 

Age  to  Castrate  Colt. — Castration  should  be  done  by  one  well  qualified 
to  do  the  work  and  is  usually  done  after  the  colt  is  a  year  old.  Too  early  castra- 
tion interferes  with  the  development  of  masculine  characteristics  that  are  impor- 
tant in  the  gelding.  Colts  should  be  in  a  healthy  condition  at  time  of  castration 
and  exercised  or  turned  to  pasture  following  the  operation.  There  is  less  oppor- 
tunity for  infection  and  colts  heal  faster  if  turned  out  to  pasture  prior  to  and  at 
time  of  castration. 

The  Care  and  Feed  of  the  Stallion. — Stallions  of  a  better  class  than  the 
average  would  greatly  increase  the  value  of  the  horse  industry  and  improve  the 
general  character  of  horses  in  every  community.  There  should  be  a  community 
interest  in  the  type  and  character  of  the  stallions  that  stand  for  service  within  it. 
Owners  of  mares  should  be  as  much  concerned  about  the  care  and  management 
of  stallions  as  they  are  with  the  care  and  management  of  their  brood  mares  and 
foals. 

Four  important  evils  prevent  stallions  from  having  the  vigor  and  fertility  to 
insure  mares  being  safely  bred  and  from  possessing  the  ability  to  impart  soundness, 
strength  and  longevity  to  their  foals.  These  evils  are  hereditary  unsoundness 
and  disease,  idleness,  pampering  with  the  wrong  kind  of  feed,  and  service  at  too 
young  an  age  and  in  excess.  There  is  no  reason  why  these  evils  should  exist  or 
cannot  be  avoided.  There  are  plenty  of  sound,  healthy  colts  of  good  parentage 
in  the  country  which  if  properly  reared  should  make  it  unnecessary  to  use  any- 
thing of  secondary  class.  A  community  effort  and  proper  appreciation  on  the 
part  of  owners  of  mares  and  stallions  in  selecting  and  handling  stallions  would 
save  money,  time  and  disappointment  and  insure  a  class  of  horses  and  a  market 
for  them  that  would  be  highly  profitable. 

Proper  Age  for  Service. — Properly  reared  and  managed,  the  best  service 
of  a  stallion  is  from  eight  to  sixteen  years.  A  two-year-old  colt  will  serve  mares 
without  indications  of  harm  at  the  time,  but  experienced  horsemen  claim  that  in 
after  years  he  will  show  undesirable  results  of  it  in  both  himself  and  his  colts. 
One  of  the  most  successful  breeders  of  horses  in  America  advises  not  to  let  a 
colt  serve  until  he  is  at  least  four  years  old  and  further  states  that  five  is  better. 

Number  of  Mares  Stallion  Should  Serve. — Commence  breeding  twenty 
mares  at  the  proper  serviceable  age  and  increase  each  year  at  the  rate  of  ten 
until  fifty  mares  are  bred  each  season,  never  going  beyond  this  number  and  never 
serving  more  than  two  mares  a  day.  This  should  insure  a  high  percentage  of 
mares  safely  bred,  colts  of  a  vigorous,  sound  character  and  a  long  useful  lifetime 
of  service  on  the  part  of  the  stallion.  Stallions  are  frequently  required  to  serve  100 


HORSE  PRODUCTION  119 

or  more  mares  in  a  season.     The  results,  however,  do  injustice  to  the  stallion, 
his  foals,  his  owner  and  the  owners  of  mares. 

Feeding  the  Stallion. — The  greater  number  of  stallions  are  likely  to  be 
overfed  at  the  beginning  of  the  breeding  season  and  poorly  fed  during  their 
idle  season.  Pampering  the  stallion  with  drugs,  stock  foods,  tonics  and  un- 
healthful  feeds  to  fatten  and  stimulate  him  is  unnecessary  and  produces  unsatis- 
factory results.  Feeding  must  be  a  matter  of  intelligent  judgment.  It  is  safe  to 
depend  upon  bright,  clean  oats  and  hay  and  a  bran  mash  once  or  twice  a  week  as 
the  condition  may  seem  to  warrant.  A  liberal  quantity  of  oats  and  bran,  two 
parts  of  oats  and  one  of  bran  fed  twice  a  day,  and  once  daily  through  the  breed- 
ing season,  giving  a  feed  of  boiled  barley  with  a  little  flaxseed  cooked  with  it 
and  fed  hot  at  night,  is  recommended.  Fresh  grass  is  always  relished  and  keeps 
the  bowels  in  good  condition. 

Authorities,  differ  on  the  matter  of  feeding  corn.  Some  advocate  a  few  ears 
occasionally,  others  avoid  feeding  it.  This  is  evidence  that  more  than  one  system 
of  feeding  may  be  followed.  Stallioners  of  the  older  school  recommend  saltpetre 
to  keep  the  system  clear  and  to  avoid  "Monday  morning"  difficulties.  A  table- 
spoonful  of  saltpetre  in  the  Saturday  evening  bran  mash  is  the  customary  prac- 
tice of  many  good  stallion  owners.  Intelligent  feeders  keep  the  stallion  in  normal 
condition  throughout  the  year;  feed  to  have  him  gain  rather  than  lose  weight 
during  the  breeding  season,  avoid  radical  changes  in  the  system  of  feeding  and 
do  not  feed  hay  or  give  large  quantities  of  water  in  the  morning  to  distend  the 
belly  and  make  service  difficult. 

Dr.  Campbell,  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  sug- 
gests the  following  combination  of  feeds  that  might  be  fed  to  stallions.  The  parts 
are  by  weight : 

Oats ;  prairie  or  timothy  hay. 

Oats  4  parts ;  corn  6  parts ;  bran  3  parts ;  prairie  or  timothy  hay. 

Oats  4  parts ;  corn  6  parts ;  linseed  meal  1  part ;  prairie  or  timothy  hay. 

Corn  7  parts ;  bran  3  parts ;  linseed  meal  1  part ;  prairie  or  timothy  hay. 

Corn;  alfalfa  hay;  prairie  or  timothy  hay. 

He  further  suggests  that  one-third  alfalfa  fed  in  the  morning  and  two-thirds 
prairie  hay  fed  at  night  and  corn  fed  three  times  a  day,  is  a  comparatively  cheap 
and  satisfactory  ration  where  alfalfa  is  grown,  and  that  barley  or  kafir  might  be 
substituted  for  corn. 

The  judgment  of  many  stallion  owners  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  rations 
containing  oats  and  a  variety  of  the  most  wholesome  feeds  should  be  seriously 
considered  and  provided,  especially  as  the  breeding  season  approaches  and 
advances. 

Exercising  and  Grooming  the  Stallion. — Daily  exercise  throughout  the 
year  is  essential  to  best  results  in  keeping  a  stallion.  To  work  him  regularly  is 
one  of  the  best  means  of  exercising.  Driving,  riding  and  allowing  him  to  run 
in  a  paddock  daily  are  other  means.  He  should  not  be  overworked,  but  kept  in  a 
firm  muscular  form,  that  gives  energy,  vigor  and  health. 


120  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Regular  and  thorough  daily  grooming  does  much  to  insure  health  and  vigor 
and  is  all  that  is  necessary  under  a  proper  system  of  feeding  to  make  the  stallion 
the  pride  of  his  owner  and  of  the  community,  in  which  he  does  service. 

A  Precaution  in  the  Use  of  Stallions. — It  is  necessary  that  a  stallion  be 
absolutely  clean  and  free  from  infectious  diseases  and  in  no  instance  should  he 
be  allowed  to  serve  mares  which  are  questionable.  Mares  having  a  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  reproductive  organs  will  not  be  likely  to  breed  successfully  and 
there  is  no  object  in  taking  a  chance  on  breeding  them  and  infecting  the  stallion 
and  the  mares  he  serves  later. 

Buying  a  Stallion. — An  individual  or  a  community  of  farmers  should  take 
into  consideration  the  following  suggestions  on  buying  a  stallion : 

Decide  upon  the  best  type  and  breed  of  horses  for  the  community. 

Arrive  at  a  decision  early  enough  to  have  plenty  of  time  to  make  the  proper 
selection. 

Consider  the  number  of  mares  to  be  bred  and  buy  a  horse  old  enough  or 
enough  horses  to  do  the  service  most  successfully. 

Buy  a  proven  sire  whose  colts  may  be  seen  if  possible. 

Buy  of  reliable  breeders  nearest  by.  It  will  save  money  and  insure  the  most 
satisfactory  attention  to  your  needs. 

Arouse  and  maintain  a  community  interest  in  the  stallion  and  in  the  foals 
that  he  will  get. 

Suggestions  for  Stallion  Owners. — Employ  if  necessary  a  regular  attend- 
ant whose  judgment  on  matters  pertaining  to  horse  production  will  insure 
the  best  care  of  the  stallion,  and  enable  him  to  make  many  valuable  suggestions  to 
owners  of  mares. 

Keep  the  stallion  in  a  roomy,  well  lighted,  ventilated  box  stall  where  sun- 
light will  help  to  keep  it  dry  and  free  from  filth. 

Have  the  stallion  where  he  can  enjoy  the  company  of  other  horses.  It 
h*elps  to  keep  him  agreeable  and  easy  to  control. 

See  to  it  that  his  feet  are  in  the  best  of  condition,  level  at  the  sole,  not 
pared  down  at  the  sole,  frog  and  bars,  or  rasped  on  the  outer  wall.  Shoes  that 
are  well  fitted  should  be  provided  when  the  stallion  is  traveled  about  the  country 
and  worked. 

Endeavor  to  conserve  the  strength  and  prolong  the  usefulness  of  a  good 
stallion  as  much  as  possible. 

Sterility  in  Stallions  and  Mares. — Most  stallions  are  potent  and  retain 
their  potency  to  an  old  age.  There  may  be  an  inability  or  an  indisposition  to 
serve  a  mare,  however,  due  to  causes  resulting  in  temporary  or  permanent  steril- 
ity. Permanent  sterility  is  usually  congenital,  present  at  birth,  and  the  result  of 
an  incomplete  or  abnormal  development  of  the  reproductive  organs.  Stallions 
with  both  testicles  retained  in  the  body  undeveloped  are  usually  sterile.  Stallions 
with  one  testicle  developed  (ridglings),  may  be  sure  breeders,  but  there  will  be  a 
tendency  for  his  colts  to  be  in  the  same  condition  and  it  is  undesirable  to.  select  a 
stallion  of  this  character. 


HORSE  PRODUCTION  m 

Temporary  sterility  is  caused  by  injuries  or  diseases  affecting  the  repro- 
ductive organs  and  also  may  be  the  result  of  extreme  change  of  environment, 
overfat  condition  or  rundown  condition  and  excessive  use  in  the  stud. 

Many  instances  are  known  where  imported  stallions  have  failed  to  serve 
mares  successfully  for  the  first  year  or  two  in  this  country  after  which  they  proved 
to  be  entirely  satisfactory.  In  most  instances  stallions  are  sold  with  a  guarantee 
to  get  60  per  cent  of  normal  brood  mares  in  foal.  A  much  better  result  than  this 
may  be  expected,  however,  if  the  stallion  is  potent  and  not  used  to  excess. 

Mares  frequently  cause  more  or  less  difficulty  as  a  result  of  their  sterile  or 
barren  condition.  Mares  past  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  age  are  likely  to  be 
sterile  due  to  disuse  and  changes  that  have  rendered  the  reproductive  organs 
inactive.  Over  fat  mares  are  difficult  to  get  with  foal.  Diseased  and  closed  and 
hardened  condition  of  the  reproductive  organs  are  causes  of  inability  to  con- 
ceive. Some  mares  appear  to  have  an  inability  to  produce  a  foal  oftener  than 
once  in  two  years.  It  is  easier  to  breed  mares  successfully  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  than  it  is  in  the  fall,  in  fact,  the  spring  when  mares  are  shedding  their  coats 
may  be  regarded  as  the  normal  and  most  successful  season  to  breed  them  and  to 
have  them  raise  their  foals  most  satisfactorily. 

Care  and  Management  of  the  Work  Horse. — The  work  horse  is  the  ulti- 
mate and  most  important  end  of  the  horse  industry.  He  is  worthy  of  every  care 
and  comfort  that  can  be  given  him  and  the  driver  and  caretaker  of  the  working 
class  of  horses  have  a  responsibility  equal  to  that  of  any  other  class  of  men  en- 
gaged in  animal  production. 

Work  Horse  Suggestions. — To  the  fullest  extent  possible,  choose  a  work 
horse  of  the  class  that  is  best  adapted  to  the  kind  of  work  he  must  perform.  If 
work  for  which  he  is  unsuited  must  be  performed,  give  him  extra  consideration 
and  every  encouragement. 

Do  not  expect  young,  immature  or  aged  horses  to  do  the  work  that  horses  in 
their  prime  can  do.  It  is  unprofitable  to  depend  upon  either  for  work  that  is 
urgent. 

Retire  from  work,  horses  that  are  lame,  sick  or  seriously  out  of  condition. 

Do  not  turn  off  an  old  horse  that  has  paid  his  cost  and  keep  many  times  and 
let  him  fall  into  the  hands  of  men  who  are  inconsiderate  of  his  welfare.  Horse 
hides,  bone  and  meat  serve  purposes  that  render  it  possible  to  have  old  horses 
humanely  and  profitably  destroyed. 

As  far  as  possible  to  do  so,  keep  work  horses'  working  regularly  to  their 
fullest  capacity.  It  is  better  for  them  and  much  more  profitable  to  their  owner. 
Farm  horses  are  idle  during  a  large  percentage  of  the  working  days  of  the  year 
which  fact  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  keeping  and  feeding  them  to  the 
best  advantage. 

Guard  against  diseases  by  never  watering  horses  at  public  watering  places 
especially  in  times  of  an  epidemic  of  distemper. 

Buying  the  Work  Horse. — Judgment  and  money  secure  a  good  work 
horse.  One  must  expect  to  pay  a  reasonable  price  for  a  work  horse  and  there  is 
nothing  saved  in  buying  something  undesirable  at  a  reduced  cost.  The  best  is 


122  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

cheapest  in  buying,  breeding  and  raising  a  work  horse.  If  one  does  not  feel  con- 
fident to  judge  a  work  horse,  it  will  pay  to  hire  an  expert  and  get  the  benefit  of  his 
judgment. 

Be  careful  to  consider  and  secure  suitable  age,  sound,  serviceable  feet,  limbs 
and  body,  a  well  balanced  straightforward  action,  a  good  disposition  and  a  good 
feeder. 

Feeding  and  Watering  the  Work  Horse. — The  character  and  amount  of 
work  a  horse  is  required  to  do  should  determine  largely  the  kind  and  amount  of 
the  ration.  The  system  of  feeding  has  more  to  do  in  determining  one's  success  in 
feeding  the  work  horse,  than  the  feed  itself.  Especially  should  one  bear  in  mind 
that  the  horse  is  not  like  the  cow  or  steer  and  that  he  performs  a  different  service. 
The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  not  adapted  to  carrying  large  quantities  of  roughage 
and  at  the  same  time  permitting  the  horse  to  work  with  ease.  The  practice  should 
be  then  to  feed  grain  and  a  small  amount  of  hay  in  the  morning,  grain  and  very 
little  hay  if  any  at  noon,  and  grain  and  a  liberal  amount  of  hay  in  the  evening  when 
there  is  opportunity  for  the  horse  to  eat  and  digest  at  his  leisure. 

Amount  of  Hay  to  Feed. — One  pound  to  one  and  one-fourth. pounds  of 
hay  per  100  Ibs.  of  body  weight  may  be  considered  an  approximate  amount  of  hay 
necessary  to  feed  the  work  horse  daily.  The  hay  should  be  bright,  clean 
quality.  While  timothy  may  be  regarded  the  standard  roughage  for  horses,  es- 
pecially in  sections  where  it  is  commonly  grown,  it  is  not  necessarily  the  only 
good  roughage.  Prairie  hays  and  hays  made  from  cereal  crops  like  oats,  barley 
and  wheat,  cut  in  the  milk  stage,  and  southern  hays  like  Johnson  grass  and  les- 
pedeza  properly  cured,  may  be  regarded  satisfactory  roughages.  Thickly  grown 
corn  fodder  and  corn  stover  well  cured  and  free  from  mold,  provide  excellent 
roughage  for  horses  in  winter,  and  may  be  used  to  advantage.  It  is  always  best, 
however,  for  the  work  horse  to  have  well  cured  hay  if  it  is  possible  to  secure  it. 
Straw  that  is  bright  and  clean  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  winter  and  will 
save  the  hay  for  later  use  or  for  other  classes  of  stock. 

Clover  and  Alfalfa  Hay  for  Horses. — Many  condemn  the  feeding  of  clover 
and  alfalfa  hay  to  horses.  For  work  horses,  however,  these  hays  may  be  fed  to 
advantage  if  the  amount  is  limited  and  the  horse  is  not  allowed  to  eat  too  much. 
Horses  like  these  feeds  better  than  other  kinds  of  hay  and  will  be  sure  to  eat  more 
than  is  good  for  them  if  judgment  is  not  used  in  supplying  them  proper  amounts. 
A  somewhat  less  amount  than  1  pound  per  100  Ibs.  of  live  weight  may  be  safely 
fed.  Timothy  or  prairie  hay  fed  in  combination  with  legume  hay,  make  a  fine 
combination. 

Silage  for  Horses. — The  following  summary  statement  by  E.  A.  Trow- 
bridge,  of  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,  indicates  the  possibility  of  utilizing 
silage  where  careful  judgment  is  used  in  feeding  it: 

Corn  silage  is  now  being  fed  with  success  by  a  large  number  of  horsemen 
and  farmers  to  all  classes  of  horses  and  mules.  Horses  at  hard  work  need 
a  concentrated  ration  and  should  not  be  expected  to  eat  large  quantities  of  silage. 

Corn  silage  should  always  be  fed  in  combination  with  other  feeds. 

Within  the  limits  of  usefulness,  it  is  a  cheap  substitute  for  hay  and  adds 
variety  and  succulence  to  the  ration. 


HORSE  PRODUCTION  123 

Silage  is  not  a  success  except  in  the  hands  of  a  careful  feeder  with  an  eye 
to  the  thrift  of  the  animal. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  spoiled  silage,  either  moldy  or  rotten,  be  fed 
to  horses  or  mules. 

Suitable  Grain  Mixtures  for  Horses. — Oats  are  the  most  common  and  the 
safest  of  all  feeds  for  the  horse.  They  are  improved  upon  for  horses  doing  heavy 
work  by  the  addition  of  other  feeds.  Nine  parts  of  oats  and  one  part  of  bran 
by  weight  with  two  to  four  ears  of  corn  thrown  in  with  the  mixture  at  each 
feeding  time,  form  a  suitable  feed  for  horses  doing  heavy  work.  Thin  horses  may 
be  given  six  ears  of  corn  in  addition  to  the  oats  and  bran. 

Corn  is  commonly  fed  in  the  middle  and  southern  states  and,  when  fed 
with  judgment  and  balanced  by  feeding  it  in  combination  with  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay  or  other  concentrates  relatively  high  in  protein,  it  may  be  regarded  an  excel- 
lent feed.  Fed  on  the  cob  or  shelled  are  usual  methods  of  feeding  it.  Experi- 
ments as  well  as  the  practice  of  the  Paris  Omnibus  Company,  indicate  that  corn 
and  cob  meal  finely  ground  is  equal  to  corn  alone.  The  ground  cob  renders  the 
corn  meal  less  likely  to  form  a  heavy  mass  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse  and  thus 
produce  colic. 

Corn  fed  with  timothy  or  prairie  hay  is  best  fed  in  combination  with  bran 
and  oil  meal.  A  mixture  of  six  parts  of  shelled  corn,  three  parts  of  wheat  bran 
and  one  part  of  oil  meal,  proved  equal  to  a  ration  of  oats  in  trials  conducted  at 
the  Kansas  Experiment  Station. 

Barley  is  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  for  horses.  Feeding  trials  indicate  that 
a  slightly  greater  quantity  of  barley  is  required  than  oats  to  produce  the  same 
results. 

Careful  judgment  on  the  part  of  feeders  will  make  it  possible  to  feed  a  great 
variety  of  grains  and  grain  by-products.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  getting 
combinations  that  are  bulky  like  oats  or  the  other  combinations  suggested  and 
that  will  balance  the  ration  with  reference  to  starchy  feeds  like  corn  or  barley 
and  nitrogenous  feeds  like  beans,  bran  and  oil  meals. 

Amount  of  Grain  to  Feed. — Farm  work  horses  at  hard  labor  should  re- 
ceive from  one  and  one-fifth  to  one  and  one-third  pounds  of  grain  per  100  Ibs.  of 
live  weight  per  day.  This  amount  will  ordinarily  maintain  their  weight.  Ad- 
ditional amounts  will  have  to  be  fed  at  the  discretion  of  the  feeder  to  increase 
the  body  weight  if  it  is  desirable  to  do  so.  The  grain  should  be  fed  in  three  equal 
feeds  morning,  noon  and  night. 

Precautions  in  Feeding  Grain. — Horses  should  be  gradually  accustomed 
to  grain  and  the  amount  governed  according  to  the  work  and  condition  of  the 
horse.  The  grain  feed  should  be  reduced  one-half  on  Saturday  nights  and  on  idle 
days,  until  four  days  have  elapsed,  or  until  the  horses  have  again  been  put  to 
work,  when  an  increased  amount  may  again  be  fed.  "Monday  Morning  Diseases," 
(Lymphangitis)  and  Azoturia  are  prevented  by  carefully  adhering  to  this  rule. 

Avoid  letting  horses  eat  their  grain  too  rapidly  by  mingling  chaffed  hay  with 
it  or  compelling  them  to  nose  it  out  from  between  round,  smooth  rocks  that  have 
been  placed  in  the  feed  boxes. 


124:  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Grinding  Grain. — A  saving  of  about  ten  percent  may  be  made  by  grind- 
ing, crushing  or  rolling  grain  for  farm  work  horses  when  at  hard  labor.  Horses 
having  poor  teeth  will  naturally  do  better  on  ground  grain.  Crushing  or  rolling 
renders  grain  less  dusty  and  it  has  been  found  that  ground  grain  fed  dry  requires 
twice  as  long  for  horses  to  consume  it  as  when  it  is  thoroughly  dampened.  How 
well  horses  eat  and  thrive  and  the  expense  of  grinding  or  crushing  should  de- 
termine to  what  extent  it  pays  to  grind  feed  for  them.  Small,  hard  grains  should 
be  ground  to  produce  satisfactory  results. 

Watering  Horses. — Methods  of  watering  may  vary,  but  a  certain  order 
of  watering  should  be  followed  after  a  horse  has  been  accustomed  to  it. 
Horses  that  have  been  without  water  for  a  long  time  should  be  allowed  only 
a  small  amount  of  water  at  first  chance  of  getting  it.  It  is  dangerous  to  allow 
a  horse  when  very  warm,  to  gorge  himself  with  water,  but  a  small  amount 
will  be  refreshing  and  unharmful.  It  is  well  to  have  horses  cool  enough  upon 
entering  the  stable  to  drink  before  they  are  fed  and  also  water  them  the  first 
thing  in  the  morning. 

Providing  Salt. — Horses  require  salt  and  are  fond  of  it.  An  ordinary 
handful  supplied  on  Sunday  is  a  practice  that  provides  a  sufficient  amount. 
Horses  at  hard  work  require  more  salt  than  idle  horses.  Regularity  and  not 
overfeeding  at  irregular  intervals  are  precautions  to  be  observed  in  feeding 
salt.  A  lump  of  rock  salt  kept  before  the  horse  at  all  times  is  the  practice 
followed  by  many  horsemen. 

Grooming,  Clipping  and  Blanketing. — Thorough  grooming  is  as  important 
as  feed  for  the  work  horse.  Removing  the  waste  material  that  comes  from 
perspiration  and  keeping  the  pores  of  the  skin  open  and  clean,  insures  health 
as  well  as  a  good  appearance  of  the  horse.  Idle  horses  do  not  need  the  groom- 
ing that  work  horses  do.  The  work  horse  should  be  groomed  at  night  suf- 
ficiently to  enable  him  to  rest  well.  A  scraper  to  remove  perspiration  that 
may  be  flowing  freely  will  reduce  much  of  the  work  of  grooming.  An  old 
broom  to  sweep  fresh  mud  from  the  legs  as  soon  as  a  horse  is  brought  into 
the  stable  is  also  an  easy  way  to  reduce  the  work  of  grooming.  Currying  with 
a  curry  comb  not  sharp  enough  to  injure  the  hide  and  briskly  brushing  with 
a  good  brush  and  woolen  cloth,  improves  the  appearance  of  the  horse  as  well 
as  keeps  him  in  fine  health  and  spirit.  The  curry  comb  should  never  be  used 
on  the  head  or  on  the  limbs  below  the  knees  and  hocks.  A  stiff,  "Dandy" 
brush  or  corn  brush  takes  the  place  of  a  curry  comb  for  the  head,  limbs,  mane 
and  tail. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  when  the  coat  of  hair  is  heavy  and  just  prior 
to  the  time  shedding  commences,  much  discomfort  can  be  saved  the  horse 
by  clipping  him.  Clipping  is  most  conveniently  done  by  two  men  and  the  use 
of  the  machine  clipper.  This  will  also  be  the  means  of  saving  feed  and  over- 
coming danger  of  overheating,  chills,  colic  and  resultant  ills.  There  is  little 
danger  from  clipping  if  the  horse  is  properly  sheltered  and  blanketed  when 
not  at  work. 

The  driver  should  regard  blanketing  during  the  fall  and  winter  seasons 
as  necessary  as  he  regards  the  necessity  of  putting  on  a  coat  to  keep  himself 


HORSE  PRODUCTION  125 

warm.  Blanketing  horses  in  the  stable  tends  to  keep  their  coats  in  better 
condition  than  they  otherwise  will  be,  although  in  stables  properly  constructed 
it  may  not  be  regarded  as  a  practice  that  justifies  the  expense.  Horses  that 
are  blanketed  while  in  the  stable  are  more  susceptible  to  taking  cold  when 
taken  out  of  the  stable  if  they  are  not  carefully  blanketed  when  left  standing. 

Care  of  the  Harness  and  Shoulders. — One  should  be  particularly  careful 
to  see  that  the  harness  properly  fits  the  horse  and  that  the  draft  or  pull 
against  their  collar  comes  as  near  to  being  at  right  angles  with  the  shoulder 
as  possible.  Keeping  the  harness  in  good  repair  and  properly  fitted  to  the 
horse  overcomes  trouble  with  sore  shoulders  and  makes  the  work  which  the 
horse  has  to  do  much  easier.  The  harness  should  be  kept  clean  especially  at 
points  which  come  in  contact  with  the  body.  Collars  should  be  pounded  and 
kept  soft  and  smooth.  A  collar  that  fits  snugly  at  the  beginning  of  the  spring 
work  when  perhaps  the  horse  is  in  high  condition  of  flesh,  may  be  somewhat 
too  large  when  the  horse  becomes  reduced  in  flesh.  Ordinarily  the  collar 
should  fit  so  that  there  is  just  room  for  one's  hand  between  the  collar  and 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck.  The  use  of  sweat  pads  tends  to  overcome  the 
collar  being  too  large  and  may  offer  protection  to  shoulders  that  are  soft  and 
tender.  In  all  instances  they  should  be  kept  clean  and  dry.  An  extra  pair 
of  sweat  pads  that  will  enable  a  dry  pair  of  pads  to  be  used  in  all  instances, 
will  be  a  good  investment.  Much  of  the  difficulty  from  sore  shoulders  is 
overcome  by  working  horses  early  in  the  spring  season  to  harden  their 
shoulders  gradually  and  have  them  in  good  condition  before  the  heaviest 
work  comes  on.  Bathing  the  shoulders  thoroughly  with  salt  water  and  drying 
them  thoroughly  each  day  in  the  early  part  of  the  spring  season,  tends  to 
harden  them  and  overcomes  soreness. 

Stabling  Horses. — In  the  construction  of  new  barns  and  in  the  modifica- 
tion of  old  barns,  there  is  always  opportunity  to  improve  upon  the  arrange-- 
ment  of  stables  and  conveniences  for  giving  live  stock  of  the  various  classes 
the  most  suitable  care  and  attention.  The  horse  stable  should  be  carefully 
constructed  to  afford  plenty  of  air,  sunlight  and  ventilation.  Stalls  should  be 
arranged  in  a  manner  to  avoid  sunlight  shining  directly  into  the  faces  of  the 
horses.  Large,  roomy  stalls  ^l/2  to  5  feet  wide  and  10  feet  deep,  provide  roomy 
stalls  in  which  horses  can  rest  comfortably,  and  be  easily  groomed  and 
harnessed.  The  floors  should  be  constructed  to  drain  properly  and  keep  the 
bedding  and  stall  as  dry  as  possible.  A  concrete  floor  with  a  rough  surface 
to  prevent  slipping  and  a  wooden  grate  immediately  under  the  horse  is  the 
most  suitable  floor.  The  grate  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  can  be  lifted 
up  and  the  floor  cleaned  whenever  necessary.  Horse  stables  need  not  neces- 
sarily be  as  warm  as  stables  for  other  classes  of  stock  and  it  is  not  a  good 
plan  to  have  the  horse  stable  in  the  same  part  of  the  barn  with  cattle  and 
other  classes  of  stock. 

If  the  horse  stable  is  included  in  the  same  barn  with  cattle,  a  partition 
that  will  separate  them  is  desirable.  Horses  kept  in  cow  barns  which  are 
as  a  rule  much  too  warm  for  horses,  incur  danger  of  taking  cold  upon  being 
exposed  to  cold  outdoor  weather.  The  horse  stable  should  be  arranged  with 


126 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


a  suitable  room  for  hanging  harnesses.  This  affords  a  saving  in  keeping 
harnesses  dry  and  away  from  the  stable  atmosphere  which  contains  more  or 
less  ammonia  that  tends  to  rot  the  leather. 

Where  hay  chutes  are  provided  and  lead  from  the  hay  mow  to  the 
manger,  precautions  should  be  taken  to  have  the  opening  at  the  manger  large 
enough  to  prevent  horses  getting  their  heads  fast.  Getting  their  heads  fast 
has  resulted  in  their  throwing  themselves  and  breaking  their  necks.  Where 
hay  chutes  are  used,  judgment  should  also  be  exercised  in  the  amount  of  hay 
that  is  put  in  the  chutes  in  order  to  prevent  the  horses  overeating.  Stalls 
should  be  well  bedded  with  straw,  shredded  corn  stalks,  shavings  or  sawdust. 
While  shavings  and  sawdust  are  suitable  for  bedding,  they  do  not  make  as 
good  manure  for  the  land  as  do  straw  and  cornstalks.  Horses  that  are  in- 
clined to  eat  their  bedding  may  be  kept  in  better  condition  if  shavings  and 
sawdust  are  used  for  bedding  purposes. 


MULE  PRODUCTION. 

The  breeding  of  mules  in  America  dates  back  to  1878  when  the  king  of 
Spain  presented  George  Washington  with  a  jack  which  was  used  at  Mount 
Vernon  and  sired  mules  that  sold  at  high  prices.  The  mule  is  a  hybrid  result- 
ing from  the  cross  of  the  jack  and  the  mare,  and  will  not  breed.  Jacks  from 
Spain  of  the  Catalonian  breed  have  been  the  most  popular  of  several  breeds 
used  in  America  for  the  production  of  mules.  This  breed  stands  14*^  to  16 
hands  high  and  possesses  style,  size,  action  and  hardiness  and  early  maturing 
quality  that  combine  to  make  the  desirable  qualities  a  jack  should  possess 
to  sire  the  best  class  of  mules. 

Types  of  Mules. — The  mule  is  generally  smaller  than  the  horse,  being  14 
to  17  hands  high  and  weighing  from  600  to  1,600  pounds.  The  size  of  the 
jack  and  of  the  mare  determine  the  type  and  character  of  the  mule.  As  a 
rule,  mares  of  good  quality  weighing  from  1,300  to  1,400  pounds,  bred  to  jacks 
of  good  size  and  quality  and  action,  having  heavy  bone  and  long,  erect  ears, 
produce  mules  of  the  most  desirable  type.  Better  prices  are  usually  paid  for 
mare  mules  than  for  horse  mules.  The  most  desirable  color  is  black  with  a 
tan  nose  and  flank.  Bay,  brown,  gray  and  dun  colors  are  more  or  less  common. 

Hughes,  in  "Successful  Farming,"  makes  the  following  classification  of 
mules  bred  in  America  and  handled  on  the  markets  in  mule  breeding  sections : 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  MULES 


Class 

Height 

Weight 

Characteristics 

Draft  

16     -17.2 

1200-1600 

Large,  heavy  boned,  thick  set. 

Sugar  

16    -17.0 

1150-1300 

Tall  with  good  quality  and  finish. 

Cotton  

13.2-15.2 

750-1100 

Small,  compact  with  good  quality. 

Mining  

12    -16 

600-1350 

"Pit"  mules,  small;  "Miners"  large  and  rugged. 

Farm  

15.2-16 

1000-1350 

Plain  and  thin,  with  good  constitution. 

HORSE  PRODUCTION  127 

Adaptability  of  Mules. — The  mule  has  proved  to  be  a  most  useful  beast 
of  burden  and  his  popularity  is  increasing.  His  hardiness,  ability  to  take  care  of 
himself  and  adaptability  to  most  kinds  of  climate,  especially  the  extremely  warm 
climates,  have  led  people,  including  many  farmers,  to  regard  him  more  practical 
to  use  than  the  horse.  More  has  been  done  in  America  to  develop  the  mule  than 
in  any  other  country.  More  than  one-half  of  the  mules  in  the  world  are  in  the 
United  States.  Prices  paid  for  mules  compare  favorably  with  those  paid  for 
horses,  and  one  should  expect  to  pay  fully  as  much  to  secure  a  good  pair  of  mules 
as  he  would  pay  for  a  good  team  of  horses. 

HOW  TO  TELL  THE  AGE  OF  A  HORSE. 

Names  of  Teeth. — In  a  complete  set  of  teeth  a  horse  has  forty  and  a  mare 
thirty-six.  They  are  named  as  follows :  front  six  on  either  jaw,  (twelve  in  num- 
ber) incisors  ;  next  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  incisors  in  a  horse,  canine  or  bridle 
tooth  (four  in  all)  ;  next  six,  double  teeth,  on  each  side  of  both  jaws,  molars  or 
grinders  (twenty- four  in  number). 

Two  Sets  of  Teeth. — A  horse  has  two  sets  of  teeth  corresponding  to  the 
baby  teeth  and  permanent  teeth  of  a  human  being.  The  first  set  are  called  milk 
teeth  or  temporary  teeth  and  consist  of  twelve  incisors  and  twelve  molars.  Half 
of  these  are  in  each  jaw.  The  temporary  teeth  are  whiter,  smaller  and  have  a 
better  defined  neck  at  the  gums  than  the  permanent  ones. 

TEETH  AT  DIFFERENT  AGES. 

Birth. — At  birth  a  colt  has  two  "nippers"  or  central  incisors  on  each  jaw 
and  three  molars.  Sometimes  these  teeth  may  not  break  through  for  a  day  or  two. 

Four  to  Six  Weeks. — At  this  time  the  lateral  incisors  break  through  on 
both  jaws.  (The  lateral  incisor  is  the  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  two  central 
incisors). 

Six  to  Ten  Months. — The  corner  incisors  break  through  when  a  colt  is 
from  six  to  ten  months  old.  (The  corner  incisor  is  the  outer  incisor  in  each  half 
of  both  jaws). 

One  Year  Old. — W'hen  a  colt  is  one  year  old  he  has  a  full  set  of  twenty- 
four  temporary  teeth. 

Two  and  One-Half  Years  Old. — At  this  age  the  two  central  incisors  are 
shed  and  also  the  fifth  permanent  molar  on  each  jaw.  The  first  and  second 
molars  are  replaced  by  permanent  ones.  (See  Photograph.) 

Three  Years  Old. — The  two  central  incisors  are  up  in  wear.  (See  Photo- 
graph). 

Three  and  One-Half  Years  Old. — The  third  temporary  molar  is  replaced 
by  a  permanent  one.  The  lateral  incisors  are  shed. 

Four  Years  Old. — The  permanent  lateral  incisors  are  up  in  wear.  (See 
Photograph) 

Four  and  One-half  Years  Old. — The  corner  incisors  are 'shed.  In  males 
the  "bridle"  or  canine  teeth  are  also  shed. 


128 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


HORSE  PRODUCTION 


129 


7_An    8-year-old    mouth.    TEe    cups 
out   of    nil    the    lower   teeth. 


fig.   9 — A    22-year-old    mouth.     The    incisors    meel    at  • 
an    acute    angle    and    the   wearing    surfaces    have    • 
triangular    shape. 


Fig.  8 — A- 14-yvar-e!d  mouth.  After  8  years  the  age 
i*  estimated  by  the  angle  at  which  the  incisors 
come  together,  by  their  length,  and  by  the  shape 

'  of  the  wearing  surface.  The  older  the  horse  the 
nearer  this  surface  approaches  a  triangle.  It  Is 
practically  impossible  to  estimate  the  age  correct- 
Iv  after  the  caps  have  disappeared  from  the  teeth. 


CONDITION  OF  THE  TEETH. 

This  Is  one  of  the  first  points  that 
should  be  considered  In  purchasing  a  horse 
or  in  the  care  of  one.  Many  a  horse  be- 
comes weak,  poor  in  condition,  and  ema- 
ciated simply  as  a  result  of  bad  teeth  which 
have  been  neglected.  If  the  horse  turns 
his  head  to  one  side  while  eating,  shows 
signs  of  poor  nutrition,  and  passes  whole 
grains  of  oats  or  corn  with  the  feces,  his 
teeth  need  attention. 

The  continual  grinding  of  the  teeth  In 
eating  causes  the  outer  edges  of  the  upper 
molars  and  the  inner  edges  of  the  lower 
molars  to  become  sharp.  These  sharp  edges 
lacerate  the  thin  skin  of  the  inner  cheek 
and  the  tongue,  and  make  chewing  painful. 
This  and  irregular  teeth  tend  to  cause  the 
animal  to  imperfectly  chew  his  feed  before 
swallowing  it;  and  unless  the  teeth  re- 
ceive proper  attention,  the  animal  becomes 
emaciated. 

In  old  animals  the  teeth  often  become 
smooth,  making  it  impossible  for  them  to 
chew  hay  and  grain.  In  such  cases  only  soft 
feeds  should  be  given. 

An  examination  of  the  teeth  may  be 
made  by  running  the  hand  Into  the  mouth 
and  feeling  them  to  see  if  they  are  sharp 
or  if  any  of  them  are  too  long.  Only  a 
qualified  veterinarian  should  be  allowed  to 
treat  the  teeth. 


130 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


o  3  Years 

S...,  3'A  to  4  Years 
4  '  •>  to  5  Years 

Sketch  of  the  permanent  incisors, 
indicating  the  order  in  which  they  ap- 
pear in  pairs.  The  central  pair  of 
permanent  incisors  m  both  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws  appear  when  the  horse 
is  about  two  and  one-half  or  three 
years  of  age,  the  next  pair  replace 
the  temporary  incisors  when  the  horse 
is  about  four  years  of  age,  and  the 
outside  pair,  making  a.  full  mouth, 
usually  appear  at  five  years  of  age. 


Passing  to  the  permanent  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw  at  nine  years  the  central  pail 
have  almost  completely  lost  their  mark 
At  ten  those  adjoining  these  have  reachec 
the  same  condition,  while  at  eleven  th< 
marks  have  about  vanished  from  all  01 
the  permanent  incisors.  It  will  be  noticec 
that  as  the  age  advances  the  appearance  o1 
the  worn  tables  assumes  a  more  tri 
angular  form. 


jfvEN  YEARS 

Lower  Incisors 


EIGHT  YCAR> 
Lower  Incisors 


At  five  years  it  will  be  noticed  that  marks 
are  very  distinct  and  the  tables  worn  but 
slightly  in  all  of  the  incisors.  At  six  years 
the  center  pair  in  the  lower  jaw  show  some 
wear,  the  mark  becoming  smaller.  At  seven 
years  the  second  pair  have  nearly  lost  their 
marks,  while  at  eight  the  third  or  outside 
pair  show  considerable  wear  with  but  a 
trace  of  the  mark. 


OwYows 


Comparison  of  a  five-year-old  mouth  witl 
one  that  is  twenty  years  old,  showing  th< 
marked  contrast  that  develops,  as  age  ad 
vances,  in  the  slope  of  the  teeth  as  viewec 
from  the  side.  To  Goubaux  and  Barrier'; 
"Exterior  of  the  Horse"  the  author  is  greatl] 
indebted  for  the  prints  of  horses'  teeth  whicl 
have  been  shown.  These  have  been  modifiec 
somewhat  to  bring  out  more  clearly  the  neces 
sary  distinctions. 


HORSE  PRODUCTION  131 

Five  Years  Old. — The  permanent  corner  incisors  are  almost  up  into  wear 
and  the  animal  has  a  full  set  of  permanent-teeth.  At  this  age  the  filly  becomes 
a  mare  and  the  colt  becomes  a  horse.  (See  Photograph) 

Six  Years  Old. — At  six  years  old  the  cups  in  the  center  incisors  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  almost  obliterated.  (See  Photograph) 

Seven  Years  Old. — The  cups  do  not  show  plainly  in  the  teeth  of  the  lower 
jaw  except  in  the  outside  pair  of  incisors.  (See  photograph) 

Eight  Years  Old. — The  cups  are  worn  out  of  all  the  lower  teeth.  (See 
Photograph) 

Nine  to  Ten  Years  Old. — The  cups  disappear  from  the  central  incisors  of 
the  upper  jaw. 

Eleven  Years  Old. — The  cups  are  worn  out  of  the  lateral  incisors  of  the 
upper  jaw  and  remain  only  in  the  two  corner  incisors. 

Twelve  Years  Old. — The  cups  are  worn  out  of  all  the  upper  teeth.  The 
central  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  are  about  as  thick  as  they  are  broad. 

Thirteen  Years  Old. — The  central  and  lateral  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  are. 
nearly  round. 

Fourteen  Years  Old. — The  corner  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  are  round 
and  the  teeth  tend  toward  the  horizontal.  (See  Photograph) 

Twenty-two  Years  Old. — The  central  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw  are  tri- 
angular and  the  incisors  meet  at  an  acute  angle.  (See  Photograph) 

SHOEING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  FEET. 

Nearly  all  diseases  of  the  feet  are  the  result  of  improper  shoeing  and  the 
lack  of  care  of  the  feet.  If  the  conditions  are  such  that  the  horn  is  not  worn 
off  faster  than  it  grows  and  the  foot  is  strong,  shoes  are  unnecessary. 

Shoes  become  necessary  when  the  animal  shows  signs  of  the  feet  be- 
coming sore  because  of  the  rapid  wearing  away  of  the  horn  when  traveling 
on  hard  roads,  etc.  This  may  be  confined  to  the  front  feet  only  and  will  dis- 
appear when  shoes  are  applied  to  their  feet.  For  ordinary  purposes  simple  plates, 
without  calks  and  just  heavy  enough  to  prevent  bending,  are  better. 

Shoes  with  sharp  calks  are  necessary  when  the  roads  are  slippery  and  when 
heavy  pulling  requires  that  the  horse  get  a  grip  which  will  enable  him  to  stand. 

Extra  heavy  shoes  are  sometimes  required  on  the  front  feet  of  draft 
horses,  and  often  a  horse  is  shod  to  suit  some  abnormal  condition  of  the  foot  such 
as  the  high-heeled  shoe  to  give  relief  in  bone  spavin,  or  the  barred  shoe  for  horses 
subject  to  corns. 

Shoe  Fitting. — All  loose  horn  should  be  removed.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  the  sole  of  the  foot  perfectly  level  for  otherwise  injuries  to  the  joints 
may  result.  The  frog  should  be  left  in  its  normal  shape  and  size  and  the  bars 
should  not  be  cut  away.  The  shoe  must  be  the  exact  size  and  shape  of  the  foot 
after  the  foot  is  trimmed  to  its  normal  form.  The  shoe  should  be  fitted  cold, 
never  hot;  the  nails  should  be  small  and  when  driven  out  well  down  on  the 
hoof.  After  the  shoe  is  fastened  clinch  the  nails  by  imbedding  them  slightly 
in  the  hoof  with  a  hammer  and  smoothing  them  off  with  a  rasp.  The  outside 


132 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


of  the  hoof  should  never  be  rasped.  Shoes  should  be  reset  every  five  or  six  weeks 
if  the  feet  are  to  be  kept  in  a  normal  condition.  For  all  defects  such  as  inter- 
fering, overreaching  and  other  defects  in  gait  consult  a  first-class  horseshoer. 


Fig.  i. — Arrangement  of  ropes  to  throw  a 
horse. 


Fig.  2. — Throwing  a  horse. 


Fig.    3. — Holding    a    horse    down^ 

THROWING  OR  CASTING  A  HORSE. 

Side-line  Method. — Take  a  three-fourths  inch  rope  about  forty  feet  long, 
double  it  at  the  center  and  tie  to  make  a  loop  about  two  feet  long.  Slip  this 
loop  over  the  horses  neck  like  a  collar  letting  the  knot  come  at  the  top  of 
the  neck.  Pass  the  two  loose  ends  down  either  side  of  the  horse,  around  the 
hind  leg  under  the  fetlock  joint  and  back  through  the  collar  Now  with  one 


HORSE  PRODUCTION  133 

man  at  the  animal's  head  and  one  holding  each  rope,  slowly  back  the  horse. 
The  men  holding  the  ropes  pull  them  tight  and  this  draws  the  animal's  legs 
forward  and  up  to  his  sides  throwing  him.  His  legs  should  be  tied  in  this 
position  to  hold  him  down.  This  method  is  especially  valuable  for  throwing 
young  horses  for  castration  as  their  hind  legs  are  forward  and  out  of  the  way. 

One-man  Method. — Take  up  the  "off"  foreleg  with  a  strap.  This  can  be 
done  by  passing  the  strap  over  the  animal's  back  and  holding  it  on  by  putting 
a  surcingle  on  and  tying  the  strap  to  this.  Hold  the  foot  up  with  one  hand 
and  draw  the  horse's  head  to  his  shoulder  (away  from  the  foot  that  is  up)  with 
the  other.  This  throws  the  animal  to  the  side  with  the  foot  raised.  The 
operator  should  get  on  the  side  close  to  the  horse's  head  as  it  goes  down  to 
keep  him  from  getting  up. 

Hobble  Method  for  Old  Horses. — Put  a  strap  with  a  ring  on  each  leg  just 
below  the  fetlock  joint.  Pass  a  rope  or  chain  through  these  rings  and  draw 
the  horse's  feet  together  until  he  loses  his  balance  and  falls.  Use  this  method 
on  horses  over  ten  years  old.  If  old  horses  are  thrown  with  side  lines  they 
are  liable  to  injure  their  backs  by  struggling. 

Preparation  for  Throwing. — To  avoid  injury  to  the  horse  pick  out  a  level 
place  in  which  to  throw  him.  Have  a  folded  blanket  ready  to  put  under  his 
head  while  down. 

CARE  OF  THE  SICK  AND  INJURED. 

A  sick  or  injured  horse  should  be  put  in  a  box  stall  if  one  is  available.  In 
case  there  is  no  box  stall  put  the  animal  in  a  wide,  comfortable  stall  as  far 
away  from  the  other  horses  as  possible,  where  he  can  be  made  comfortable 
and  it  will  be  quiet.  His  stall  should  be  clean,  and  free  from  drafts. 

Making  Patient  Comfortable. — The  patient  should  be  made  as  comfort- 
able and  contented  as  possible.  The  stall  should  be  kept  clean  and  tidy.  The 
floors  should  be  scraped  often.  The  stall  should  be  well  ventilated  as  pure  air 
is  essential  to  a  speedy  recovery.  It  should  be  kept  at  a  comfortable  tem- 
perature and  should  be  dry.  All  disagreeable  odors  of  medicine  should  be 
eradicated.  If  the  patient  can  lie  down  he  should  have  a  good  bedding  of  dry, 
fine,  loose  litter.  If  he  eats  this  bedding  he  can  be  bedded  with  moss  or  saw- 
dust. Unless  it  is  necessary  from  the  nature  of  the  disease  to  have  the  stall 
dark,  enough  light  should  be  admitted  to  make  it  cheerful.  A  horse  suffering 
from  a  nervous  disease  must  not  be  excited.  One  person  should  do  all  the 
doctoring  to  avoid  frightening  him.  After  the  patient  is  fed  any  food  that 
remains  should  be  immediately  removed  or  it  will  make  him  lose  what  little 
appetite  he  may  have  if  it  is  left.  He  should  always  have  pure  clean  water 
where  he  can  get  it  without  effort.  Even  when  he  is  not  thirsty  he  enjoys 
washing  his  mouth  out  with  the  water.  If  hay  is  fed  it  should  be  the  best 
and  should  be  clean.  If  a  horse  has  colic  he  should  have  plenty  of  space  in 
which  to  roll  over. 

Blankets  and  Bandages. — It  may  be  necessary  to  protect  the  patient  from 
drafts  with  blankets.  This  can  be  done  by  putting  blankets  on  him  or  by 


134  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

hanging  them  up  to  enclose  the  stall.  In  putting  them  on  the  horse  keep  them 
well  forward  and  tied  under  the  chest  and  in  hanging  them  up  to  enclose  the 
stall  be  sure  sufficient  space  is  left  for  ventilation.  The  blankets  should  be 
woolen  and  their  weight  carefully  adapted  to  the  weather.  The  extremities 
may  be  protected  with  light  woolen  bandages  after  being  rubbed  lightly  to 
increase  the  circulation.  In  applying  a  bandage  take  a  strip  of  woolen  cloth 
about  three  inches  wide  and  six  feet  long,  roll  it  into  a  neat  roll  and  begin 
wrapping  the  part  at  the  bottom  winding  upward.  With  a  little  practice  a 
good  bandage  can  be  put  on  in  this  way.  If  a  liniment  is  applied  to  a  part 
after  it  is  bandaged  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  its  blistering. 

Slings. — It  is  often  necessary  to  place  a  sick  or  injured  horse  in  slings. 
A  sling  can  be  made  from  a  wide  piece  of  stout  canvas  or  from  wide  straps. 
It  is  supported  from  above  by  means  of  a  chain  and  tackle.  This  enables  the 
patient  to  rest  his  legs  and  still  be  in  an  upright  position.  It  is  seldom  neces- 
sary to  carry  the  whole  weight  of  the  animal  in  using  a  sling.  It  is  better  to 
place  the  sling  under  him  so  he  can  settle  his  weight  into  it  when  his  legs 
are  tired  or  stand  on  his  legs  at  will.  Remember  to  so  adjust  the  sling  as 
to  have  it  fit  closely  behind  the  elbows  and  throw  the  animal's  weight  on  his 
chest  and  not  on  his  abdomen. 

Side  Supports. — Side  supports  are  often  very  beneficial  to  the  patient  that 
is  unable  to  lie  down.  These  should  be  placed  in  about  the  same  position 
that  the  shafts  would  come.  It  may  also  be  well  to  place  one  in  front  of  his 
breast  and  one  in  back  of  him,  in  case  he  is  injured  behind.  Such  supports 
should  be  wound  with  clothes  to  protect  the  animal. 

Food  for  Sick  Animals. — It  is  very  important  to  know  what  and  how  to 
feed  a  sick  animal  if  he  is  to  make  the  speediest  recovery  possible.  As  a  rule 
the  main  thing  is  to  preserve  the  animal's  strength.  If  the  patient  can  eat  he 
should  be  given  cooling,  laxative,  nutritious  but  not  bulky  foods.  This  will 
keep  his  bowels  free  and  open.  Food  should  not  be  forced  upon  an  animal.  It 
should  be  prepared  attractively  so  as  to  tempt  him  to  eat.  In  case  it  is  re- 
fused, the  food  should  be  at  once  removed  and  offered  again  in  a  short  time. 
Do  not  force  the  animal  to  eat  unless  recovery  depends  upon  his  conservation 
of  strength  alone.  Medicine  should  not  be  given  in  the  food  if  it  spoils  the 
flavor  for  the  patient.  The  following  make  excellent  foods  for  sick  animals : 
roots  such  as  carrots,  good  fresh  grass,  apples  (fed  from  the  hand),  milk, 
gruels  and  bran  mashes.  Gruels  and  mashes  may  contain  dry  or  boiled  oats, 
raw  eggs  (beaten),  bran  and  ground  oats  mixed  in  cut  hay  and  wet  with  cold 
water.  To  make  a  gruel  stir  about  a  quart  of  oatmeal  or  cornmeal  into  a 
gallon  of  cold  water  and  let  it  soak  for  an  hour.  To  make  a  bran  mash  add 
some  salt  to  about  five  quarts  of  bran.  Put  this  into  a  pail  and  cover  with 
boiling  water.  Cover  the  pail  with  cloths  to  keep  in  the  steam  and  to  keep 
it  warm.  It  is  well  to  add  a  few  oats  to  the  mash  if  necessary  to  tempt  the 
horse  to  eat. 

Giving  a  Horse  Medicine. — Medicine  is  given  to  horses  in  the  form  of  a 
drench,  in  the  form  of  pills  or  with  a  small  syringe. 


HORSE  PRODUCTION  135 

The  Drench. — To  drench  a  horse  his  head  must  be  drawn  up  high  enough 
to  make  the  medicine  run  down  but  not  too  high.  The  head  can  be  easily 
raised  by  means  of  a  rope,  a  loop  of  which  is  passed  back  of  the  incisor  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw.  The  end  is  then  passed  under  the  nose  band  of  the  halter 
and  through  a  pulley  or  over  a  beam.  The  medicine  is  given  in  liquid  form 
from  a  strong  glass  bottle  such  as  a  wine  or  whiskey  bottle.  It  is  poured  in 
slowly  at  a  corner  of  the  animal's  mouth. 

How  to  Make  a  Horse  Swallow  Medicine. — If  the  horse  refuses  to  swallow 
pour  a  teaspoonful  of  water  into  one  of  his  nostrils.  This  will  make  him  take 
the  medicine. 

Pills  or  Balls. — To  give  medicine  in  the  form  of  a  pill  or  ball  hold  it  in 
the  tips  of  the  three  middle  fingers  of  the  right  hand.  Grasp  the  tongue  of 
the  horse  with  the  left  hand  and  pull  it  well  forward,  turning  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  towards  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  Next  insert  the  right  hand  and  push 
the  pill  far  back  past  the  bulge  in  the  tongue.  Withdraw  both  hands  quickly 
and  the  medicine  will  go  down. 

The  Syringe. — The  syringe  makes  a  fine  way  to  give  medicine  to  a  horse. 
One  can  get  a  small  hard  rubber  syringe  for  this  purpose.  The  syringe  is  held 
in  the  right  hand  while  the  animal's  mouth  is  opened  with  the  left  and  the 
medicine  is  forced  into  the  back  part  of  the  mouth.  Medicine  can  be  given 
quickly  and  easily  this  way. 

Action  of  Drugs  in  Horses. — (See  "Cattle  Department.") 

CASTRATION. 

This  consists  in  removing  the  organs  of  generation  of  the  males.  Colts 
are  generally  castrated  when  a  year  or  two  years  old.  If  a  colt  is  not  well 
developed  it  is  better  to  let  him  go  until  he  is  three  years  old.  Colts  should 
not  be  castrated  when  it  is  exceedingly  hot  or  cold  or  when  the  flies  are  bad. 
The  best  time  is  generally  in  the  spring  when  the  pastures  are  good  and  the 
weather  cool. 

The  colt  to  be  castrated  should  be  thrown  on  his  left  side  or  stood  with 
his  side  to  a  wall  and  restrained  by  a  twist  on  his  nose.  The  scrotum  or 
testicle  sack  should  be  washed  clean  and  antiseptics  used.  Remove  the  smaller 
testicle  first.  The  scrotum  should  be  firmly  grasped  below  the  testicles  and 
the  testicles  squeezed  against  the  skin  until  it  is  tight.  Next  a  bold  incision 
is  made  close  to  the  line  dividing  the  scrotum  in  the  center  and  well  forward. 
This  cut  should  be  long  enough  to  allow  the  testicle  to  drop  out  easily  and 
allow  sufficient  drainage.  The  cord  should  be  cut  at  least  four  inches  from 
the  testicle  to  prevent  a  tumor  forming.  Among  the  ways  of  severing  the 
cord  are  by  tying  the  cord  with  a  strong  but  small  string  and  cutting  the 
testicle  with  a  knife  close  to  the  string,  and  by  using  the  emasculator  or 
ecraseur,  instruments  designed  for  that  purpose. 

A  colt  should  rest  for  some  time  after  being  castrated;  then  he  should 
have  light  exercise  to  remove  the  blood  clots  that  collect  in  the  scrotum.  His 
bowels  should  be  kept  open  with  injections  of  glycerine  and  warm  water  and 
the  wound  should  be  bathed  with  antiseptics. 


136  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Swelling  after  Castration. — In  case  the  scrotum  swells  badly  after  the 
colt  is  castrated  and  the  animal  does  not  eat  well  he  should  be  looked  after. 
Infection  due  to  a  lack  of  cleanliness  during  the  operation ;  confining  the  colt 
in  dirty  stables  after  being  castrated. 

Treatment. — Put  the  colt  in  clean  quarters  or  better  let  him  run  in  a  good 
pasture.  Give  him  plenty  of  exercise  and  a  tablespoonful  of  saltpeter  (to  a 
two-year  old)  once  a  day  for  three  or  four  days.  Be  sure  the  kidneys  are 
active  and  the  bowels  well  opened.  Dip  the  finger  in  disinfectant  and  open 
the  wound  in  case  it  needs  draining.  Twice  every  day  it  is  well  to  inject  a 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  into  the  sack.  Use  it  one  part  to  thirty  of  water.  It 
will  help  relieve  the  pain  if  you  wash  the  sack  with  hot  water. 

Throw  cold  water  upon  the  loins  and  the  parts.  This  usually  stops  the 
bleeding  quickly. 

Apply  vinegar  to  the  parts  after  washing  them  well  with  salt  water. 

It  is  said  that  a  string  tied  tightly  around  the  tail  will  stop  bleeding  from 
castration  in  a  short  time. 

HOW  TO  LOCATE  LAMENESS. 

Below  we  give  the  indication  of  lameness  in  each  different  part  of  the 
horse  in  the  simplest  way  possible,  so  as  to  make  a  handy  reference  when 
an  animal  goes  lame. 

In  locating  lameness  remember  the  following : 

1.  A  horse  that  walks  lame  will  always  trot  very  lame.     Lameness  is 
best  shown  in  a  slow  trot. 

2.  One  should  not  jump  too  hastily  to  a  conclusion  as  to  the  location  of 
the  lameness.    Rather  than  put  a  blister  on  the  wrong  place  he  might  better 
delay  until  the  indications  are  more  prominent. 

3.  The  horse  should  be  trotted  immediately  upon  leaving  the  stable. 

4.  The  lame  foot  should  be  examined  closely  as  a  horse  may  be  lame  in 
two  places  at  the  same  time. 

5.  Lameness  seldom  exists  any  length  of  time  without  some  inflamma- 
tion, but  a  stone  in  the  foot  may  be  very  painful  to  the  animal  before  any 
great  heat  can  be  perceived. 

6.  In  examining  the  foot,  the  shoe  should  be  removed,  the  nails  should 
be  examined  for  signs  of  pus  or  blood  and  the  bottom  of  the  foot  cleaned  and 
gone  over  for  punctures  or  bruises. 

7.  Horses  are  likely  to  flinch  when  their  shoulders  are  pressed  firmly. 
This  should  not  mislead. 

8.  To  determine  heat,  aside  from  the  touch,  one  may  wet  the 'correspond- 
ing parts  on  each  leg.    The  leg  drying  first  is  the  one  heated. 


HORSE  PRODUCTION  137 

Location.  Indications. 

In  the  Leg. 

When  Standing. — Pastern  of  lame  leg  held  more  upright  than  others; 
resting. leg  more  often  and  longer  than  others;  lying  down  unusually 
long;  heat,  swelling  or  pain  in  some  part  of  leg,  (discovered  by  hand- 
ling and  moving  it). 

When  Trotting  Slowly. — Lame  foot  is  lifted  more  quickly  than  others 
and  less  weight  is  put  upon  it,  making  a  different  noise  as  the  foot  hits 
the  ground.  (Turning  the  animal  sharply  to  the  left  or  right  so  as  to 
bring  the  weight  alternately  on  the  right  and  left  legs  generally  in- 
creases any  signs  of  lameness.) 

In  One  Forefoot. 

When  Standing. — One  forefoot  held  far  in  advance  of  the  other,  indi- 
cates  soreness  in  back  part  of  leg;  resting  the  toe  on  the  ground,  bend- 
ing the  fetlock  and  knee,  both  forefeet  being  about  even. 
When  Trotting  Slowly. — Head  and  forequarter  raised  on  lame  side  as 
forefoot  comes  to  the  ground  but  drops  on  well  side.  Caution :  Do  not 
mistake  this  for  lameness  behind  because  of  the  depression  in  the 
opposite  hind  hip. 

In  Both  Forefeet. 

When  Standing. — Both  forefeet  kept  in  advance  of  the  body,  horse 
resting  on  heels;  hind  legs  held  well  under  body;  changes  position 
often ;  shoulders  held  upright  and  stiff ;  head  held  high ;  loins  arched ; 
hind  feet  held  well  under  the  body." 

When  Trotting  Slowly. — Takes  short  steps  and  puts  feet  down  care- 
fully. 

In  One  Hind  Leg. 

When  Standing. — Lame  foot  held  in  advance.     (Indicates  soreness  low 

down). 

When  Trotting  Slowly. — Lame  hip  raised  higher  than  opposite  one; 

lame  foot  put  down  carefully. 

In  Stifle. 

When  Trotting  Slowly. — Drags  toe. 

In  Hip. 

When  Trotting  Slowly. — Drags  leg  on  lame  side  and  trots  out  of  align- 
ment. 

In  Both  Hind  Quarters. 

When  Standing. — Forefeet  well  under  the  body. 
When  Backing. — Backs  up  with  difficulty. 

In  Both  Legs  on  Same  Side. 

When  Trotting  Slowly.— Never  trots  squarely,  ambles  instead ;  drops 
heavily  on  well  side. 

Deep  Seated. 

No  pain,  heat  or  swelling  discovered  by  handling  and  moving. 


138 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


BLEMISHES  POSSIBLE  ON  A  HORSE. 


1.  Short  ear.  34. 

2.  Drooping  ear.  35. 

3.  Pus  from  nose.  36. 

4.  Saliva  caused  by  wound.  37. 

5.  Loose  lip  partially  paralyzed.  38. 
6-8.  Fistula  of  jaw.  39. 

7.  Salivary  fistula.  40. 

9.  Blind   eye. 

10.  Bony  tumor.  41. 

11.  Ewe  neck.  42. 

12.  Goitre.  43. 

13.  Enlarged  jugular  vein.  44. 

14.  Swelling  of  paroted  gland.  45. 

15.  Poll  evil.  46. 

16.  Itch  or  mange.  47. 

17.  Fistula  from  improper  bleeding.      48. 

18.  Farcy.  49. 

19.  Swelling  of  breast  glands.  50. 

20.  Abscess.  51. 

21.  Enlarged  fetlock  joint.  52. 

22.  Ridge  in  hoof.  53. 

23.  Poorly  formed  pastern.  54. 

24.  Ox  foot.  55. 

i 

25.  Quarter  crack.  56. 

26.  Gall  on  fetlock  joint.  57. 

27.  Thickened  tendons.  58. 

28.  Splint.  59. 

29.  Enlargement  of  the  knee.  60. 

30.  Mud  fever.  61. 

31.  Stilt  foot.  62. 

32.  Contracted  hoof.  63. 

33.  Inflamed    skin    on    knee    called      64. 

Mallenders. 


Shoe  boil. 

Flank  or  ventral  hernia. 

Stifle  lameness. 

Farcy  buds. 

Bog  spavin. 

Bone  spavin. 

Inflamed     skin     on     hock     joint 

called  Sallenders. 
Navel  rupture. 
Inguinal  hernia. 
Bursal  enlargement. 
Rings  on  hoof. 
Sand  crack. 
Small  thigh. 
Capped  hock. 
Thoroughpin. 
Blood  spavin. 
Curb. 

Wind  galls. 
Big  leg. 
Quittor. 
Flat  foot. 
Grease  heel. 

Hair  off  tail  called  Rat-tail. 
Drooping  rump. 
Wasting  of  muscles. 
Pointed  hip.    . 
Eel  back. 
Saddle  gall. 
Sway  back. 
Fistulous  withers. 
Saddle  gall. 


DISEASES    OF   HORSES 

GENERAL  SYMPTOMS. 

Abdomen  sensitive  to  pressure;  pain  continuous  in  bowels;  high  fever;  pulse 
hard  and  rapid;  horse  hates  to  lie  down  and  before  doing  so  stands  with 
feet  together,  legs  partially  bent  and  hesitates  before  going  down. — 
Inflammation  of  the  Bowels,  Page  163. 

Afterbirth  is  detached  within  a  few  hours  after  foaling. — Removing  Placenta. 

Appetite  changeable ;  hair  rough ;  signs  of  ill  health ;  passage  of  worms. — 
Intestinal  Worms,  Page  167. 

Appetite  gone;  sluggishness;  pawing  now  and  then;  general  uneasiness. — 
Indigestion,  Page  167. 

Breathing  difficult;  perspiring  freely;  trembles  violently  if  forced  to  go; 
staggers  and  seems  unconscious  until  he  falls ;  attack  usually  occurs  when 
the  horse  is  exercising  soon  after  feeding. — Stomach  Staggers,  Page  177. 

Breathing  labored ;  nostrils  standing  open  because  of  double  hitch  in  breath- 
ing; often  a  deep  moist  cough  and  frequent  discharges  from  the  nose; 
cannot  work  hard  without  stopping  frequently  to  breathe. — Heaves, 
Page  167. 

Breathing  quickened ;  cough ;  chill  followed  by  a  fever  which  increases  grad- 
ually; rapid  pulse;  rattling  sound  in  the  lungs  detected  by  putting  the 
ear  to  the  chest. — Pneumonia,  Page  171. 

Belly. — Swelling  of  before  foaling.— Dropsy,  Page  163. 

Bleeding  from  cracks  and  chaps  on  back  part  of  pastern  in  cold  weather; 
hollow  of  pastern  is  swollen. — Scratches,  Page  175. 

Bone  broken  and  displaced;  part  cannot  be  used;  a  grating  sound  can  be 
heard  when  the  bone  is  moved;  the  broken  bone  may  be  felt;  pain  and 
swelling. — Fractures,  Page  Page  166. 

Bones  of  head  becoming  larger  and  lighter;  face  full  and  round;  later  the 
legs  are  affected  and  there  is  some  inflammation. — Big  Head,  Page  153. 

Bowels  move  often  and  pass  a  thin,  watery  manure. — Diarrhea,  Page  162. 

Breathing  with  a  roaring  or  whistling  sound. — Roaring,  Page  173. 

Bunch. — Bony  bunch  usually  on  side  of  joint;  severe  lameness;  pastern  joint 
swollen,  heated,  tender. — Ringbone,  Page  173. 

Bunch  on  back  of  hock  following  some  inflammation  of  part ;  sometimes 
lameness. — Curb,  Page  162. 

Cavity  in  the  flesh  from  which  issues  pus  for  a  long  time ;  does  not  heal 
readily. — Fistula,  Page  163. 

Chill  followed  by  fever;  great  pain;  pulse  full  and  hard;  movement  difficult 
and  stiff;  walks  on  heels. — Founder,  Page  164. 

139 


140  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Chills  followed  by  fever;  the  glands  inside  of  the  leg  are  swollen  and  sore; 
manipulation  of  leg  causes  pain;  leg  enlarged. — Big  Leg,  Page  153. 

Chill  followed  by  fever ;  pulse  full  and  rapid ;  short,  dry,  husky  cough ;  bowels 
constipated. — Bronchitis,  Page  159. 

Chill  followed  by  fever  which  increases  gradually  for  a  time  ;  quickened  breath- 
ing; rapid  pulse;  cough;  rattling  sound  in  the  lungs  which  can  be  de- 
tected by  placing  the  ear  to  the  chest. — Pneumonia,  Page  171. 

Coffin-joint  is  not  bent  when  walking  and  horse  points  the  affected  foot  out 
while  standing;  lameness  that  may  be  worse  when  exercised;  stands 
on  toes  when  possible;  excessive  pressure  produces  pain. — Coffin-joint. 

Consciousness  lost ;  stops  ;  pants  violently ;  falls  ;  breathes  slow  ;  pulse  weak ; 
heart  beats  irregular. — Sunstroke,  Page  179. 

Cough ;  chill  followed  by  a  fever  which  increases  gradually ;  quickened  breath- 
ing; rapid  pulse;  rattling  sound  in  the  lungs  detected  by  putting  the  ear 
to  the  chest. — Pneumonia,  Page  171. 

Cough  dry,  short  and  husky;  pulse  full  and  rapid;  chill  followed  by  fever; 
bowels  constipated. — Bronchitis,  Page  159. 

Cough. — Often  a  deep  moist  cough  and  frequent  discharges  from  the  nose; 
horse  cannot  work  hard  without  stopping  frequently  to  breathe ;  labored 
breathing;  nostrils  standing  open  because  of  double  hitch  in  breathing. — 
Heaves,  Page  167. 

Coughing ;  throat  swollen ;  some  fever ;  swallowing  difficult ;  water  runs  out 
through  the  nose  when  drinking. — Sore  Throat,  Page  175. 

Crack  in  the  wall  of  the  hoof  extending  downward  or  upward;  severe  lame- 
ness.— Quarter  Crack,  Page  172. 

Cracks  and  chaps  extend  in  all  directions  on  back  of  pastern ;  hollow  of 
pastern  is  swollen ;  red  and  tender ;  bleeding  in  cold  weather. — Scratches, 
Page  175. 

Discharge  from  the  nose  that  is  thin  and  colorless  becoming  thicker  and 
darker  as  the  disease  progresses;  pimples  on  the  lining  of  the  nostrils; 
glands  under  the  jaw  large  and  tender;  general  weakness. — Glanders, 
Page  166. 

Discharge  of  foul  smelling  pus  from  crack  in  horny  frog  of  foot;  hoof  dry; 
heel  feverish ;  tenderness  and  lameness  more  noticeable  when  foot  hits 
hard  object. — Thrush,  Page  180. 

Discharge  of  pus  from  a  cavity  in  the  flesh  often  continuing  for  long  periods ; 
does  not  heal  easily. — Fistula,  Page  163. 

Discharges  of  a  whitish  slimy  nature  that  give  off  an  offensive  odor ;  signs  of 
general  debility. — Whites,  Page  180. 

Discharge  that  is  thick  from  eyes;  eyes  Ted;  throat  sore;  high  fever;  con- 
stipation; weakness;  poor  appetite;  head  hangs;  watery  discharge  from 
lining  of  nose. — Pink  Eye,  Page  171. 

Dry,  scanty  and  hard  manure;  mild  colicy  pains  which  may  become  severe 
if  condition  is  not  relieved. — Constipation,  Page  161. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES  141 

Dull  and  listless  appearance  of  animal;  loss  of  appetite;  fever;  eyes  watery 
and  discharge  from  nostrils;  throat  usually  swells  and  an  abscess  forms 
under  lower  jaw. — Distemper,  Page  162. 

Ears  and  legs  of  mare  are  cold ;  some  fever ;  bowels  constipated ;  secretion  of 
milk  small ;  may  be  some  inflammation  of  the  udder. — Milk  Fever,  Page 
93. 

Eating  impossible;  jaw  muscles  firmly  contracted;  stiff  muscles  hard;  sweats 
profusely;  head  elevated;  nose  protrudes;  easily  excited;  "haw"  drawn 
across  corner  of  eye ;  usually  stands. — Lockjaw,  Page  169. 

Eating  with  difficulty;  spitting  food  out;  holding  head  to  one  side;  slobber- 
ing when  drinking;  loss  of  flesh;  swelling  on  side  of  face  or  under  lower 
jaw;  pus  often  discharges  from  swelling. — Abnormal  Teeth. 

Elbow  has  swelling  that  is  soft  and  flabby  and  contains  a  watery  fluid. 
It  increases  in  size  and  .becomes  hot  and  tender. — Shoe  Boil,  Page  175. 

Eye. — "Haw"  drawn  across  corner  of  eye ;  head  elevated ;  sweats  profusely ; 
muscles  of  body  hard  and  stiff ;  jaw  held  shut ;  cannot  eat ;  nose  protrudes ; 
easily  excited ;  horse  usually  stands. — Lockjaw,  Page  169. 

Eyes  inflamed  and  have  thick  discharge ;  head  hangs ;  loss  of  appetite ;  weak- 
ness ;  constipation ;  high  fever ;  watery  discharge  from  lining  of  nose ;  sore 
throat.— Pink  Eye,  'Page  171. 

Eyes  red  and  inflamed ;  lids  swollen  sometimes ;  profuse  discharge  of  tears  and 
mucus ;  strong  light  irritating. — Sore  Eyes,  Page  96. 

Eyes  watery  and  discharge  from  nostrils ;  animal  dull  and  listless ;  poor  appe- 
tite; fever;  throat  usually  swells  and  an  abscess  forms  under  lower  jaw. — 
Distemper,  Page  162. 

Face  of  horse  full  and  round;  bones  of  head  larger  and  lighter  than  usual; 
later  the  legs  are  affected  and  there  may  be  some  inflammation. — Big 
Head,  Page  153. 

Falling  insensible  after  stopping;  throwing  head  up;  acting  stupid;  reeling 
and  staggering;  soon  gets  up  as  if  nothing  had  happened;  sometimes 
horse  only  stops,  gives  a  few  convulsive  movements  of  his  head  and 
shivers. — Blind  Staggers,  'Page  158. 

Fetlock-joint  held  forward  past  its  normal  position. — Knuckling,   Page  169. 

Fever  high ;  pulse  hard  and  rapid ;  pain  continuous  in  bowels ;  flank  is  sensi- 
tive to  pressure ;  horse  hates  to  lie  down  and  before  doing  so  stands  with 
his  feet  together ;  legs  partially  bent  and  hesitates  before  going  down. — 
Inflammation  of  the  Bowels,  Page  163. 

Flank. — Horse  looks  toward  flank;  pain  moderate  but  continuous;  lies  down 
often  or  stands  stretched  out  as  if  to  urinate. — Indigestion,  Page  167. 

Flank  if  pressed  causes  horse  to  flinch;  pain  continuous  in  bowels;  high 
fever;  pulse  hard  and  rapid;  horse  hates  to  lie  down  and  before  doing  so 
stands  with  his  feet  together,  legs  partially  bent  and  hesitates  before 
going  down. — Inflammation  of  the  Bowels,  "Page  163. 


142  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Food   spit  out  when   eating;   eating  with   difficulty;   holding  head   to   one 

side;  slobbering  when  drinking;  loss  of  flesh;  swelling  on  side  of  face 

or  under  lower  jaw;  pus   often   discharged  from   swelling. — Abnormal 

Teeth. 
Foot  pointed  out  when   standing;   coffin-joint  is   not  bent  when   walking; 

lameness  that  is  worse  when  exercised;  stands  on  toes  when  possible; 

excessive  pressure  produces  pain. — Coffin-joint  Lameness. 
Going  down  of  hind  parts ;  perspiration  profuse ;  muscles  trembling,  swollen 

and  stiff;  hind  quarters  lame  and  stiff;  difficulty  in  moving;  urine  dark  in 

color;   animal  makes   unsuccessful   efforts   to   get  up. — Azoturia,   Page 

152. 
Hair  comes  off  in  patches;  skin  rough  and  scaly;  severe  itching.     Usually 

affects  head  and  neck  first. — Mange,  Page  170. 
Hair  rough ;  appetite  changeable ;  signs  of  ill  health ;  passage  of  worms. — 

Intestinal  Worms,  Page  167. 
Hard,  dry  and  scanty  manure ;  mild  colicy  pains  which  may  become  severe  if 

condition  is  not  relieved. — Constipation,  'Page  161. 
Head  elevated;  sweats  profusely;  muscles  of  body  hard   and   stiff;  jaw  held 

shut ;  cannot  eat ;  nose  protrudes ;  easily  excited ;  "haw"  drawn  across 

corner  of  eye ;  horse  usually  stands. — Lockjaw,    Page  169. 
Head  full  and  round ;  bones  of  head  larger  and  lighter  than  usual.    Later  the 

legs  are  affected  and  there  is  some  inflammation. — Big  Head,  Page  153. 
Head  hangs;   loss  of  appetite;  weakness;  constipation;   eyes  become   very 

red  with  a  thick  discharge;  high   fever;  water  discharge   from  lining  of 

nose;  sore  throat. — Pink  Eye,  Page  171. 
Head  held  to  one  side;  eating  with  difficulty;  spitting  out  food;  slobbering 

when  drinking;  loss  of  flesh;  swelling  on  side  of  face  or  under  lower 

jaw;  pus  often  discharged  from  swelling. — Abnormal  Teeth. 
Head  has  a  painless  swelling  on  top  of  it  at  first ;  later  there  is  some  pain  and 

the  swelling  is  full  of  pus;  there  is  a  feverish  condition  of  the  parts. — 

Poll  Evil,  Page  172. 
Head  thrown  up ;  horse  stops,  seems  stupid ;  staggers ;  reels ;  may  fall  down 

for  a  few  minutes  insensible  and  then  get  up,  shake  himself  and  act 

as  if  nothing  had  happened;  at  other  times  the  horse  stops  and  only  gives 

a  few  convulsive  movements  of  the  head  and  shivers. — Blind  Staggers, 

Page  152. 
Head  turned  toward  flank;  pawing;  severe  pain  coming  on  suddenly,  letting 

up  then  returning;  breathing  rapid. — Spasmodic  Colic,  Page  176. 
Heart   beats    irregular ;    consciousness    lost ;    horse    stops ;    pants   violently ; 

falls;  breathes  slowly;  pulse  weak. — Sunstroke,  Page  179. 
Heat. — Coming  in   heat   again   is   proof   that   mare   has   aborted.     In   early 

months  there  is  usually  no  warning  before  an  abortion  has  taken  place. — • 

Abortion,  Page  152. 
Heels  walked  on;  chill  followed  by  fever;  great  pain;  pulse  full  and  hard; 

movement  difficult  and  stiff. — Founder,  Page  164. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES  143 

Hock  is  inflamed  on  back  side  and  a  bunch  soon  forms  in  seat  of  inflamma- 
tion ;  sometimes  lameness. — Curb,  Page  162. 

Hock  joint  has  a  puffy  swelling  on  front  part. — Bog  Spavin,  Page  158. 

Hind-leg  jerked  up  spasmodically  when  horse  walks. — Stringhalt,  Page  178. 

Hindquarters  lame  and  stiff;  trembling  of  the  muscles;  profuse  perspiration; 
difficulty  in  moving;  often  hind  parts  go  down  before  horse  can  be  moved 
to  stable ;  muscles  swollen  and  rigid ;  animal  makes  unsuccessful  efforts 
to  get  up ;  urine  dark  in  color. — Azoturia,  "Page  152. 

Inflammation  at  back  part  of  hock  followed  by  a  bunch  on  the  part;  some- 
times lameness. — Curb,  Page  162. 

Itching  severely ;  skin  rough  and  scaly ;  hair  comes  off  in  patches.  Usually 
affects  the  head  and  neck  first. — Mange,  Page  170. 

Jaw  held  shut  by  firmly  contracted  muscles;  impossible  to  eat;  sweats  pro- 
fusely ;  muscles  hard ;  head  elevated ;  nose  protrudes ;  easily  excited ; 
"haw"  drawn  across  corner  of  eye ;  horse  usually  stands. — Lockjaw, 
Page  169. 

Joint  at  the  fetlock  held  forward  past  its  normal  position. — Knuckling,  Page 
169. 

Joint  swollen  following  a  wound  on  the  leg  in  which  there  is  a  slippery  fluid ; 
joint  inflamed;  horse  becomes  very  lame;  fever;  loss  of  appetite;  intense 
pain ;  as  the  inflammation  increases  the  fluid  becomes  darker  and  may 
contain  pus. — Open  Joint,  Page  170. 

Knuckling  forward  at  fetlock-joint  throwing  the  joint  forward  past  its  nor- 
mal position. — Knuckling,  Page  169. 

Lameness  and  some  inflammation  at  back  part  of  hock,  followed  by  a  bunch  or 
thickening  of  the  part. — Curb,  'Page  162. 

Lameness,  and  tenderness,  more  noticeable  when  foot  hits  a  hard  object; 
slight  discharge  of  foul  smelling  pus  from  crack  in  horny  frog;  hoof 
dry ;  heel  feverish. — Thrush,  Page  180. 

Lameness  improving  with  exercise ;  soreness  and  small  swelling  just  at 
the  bottom  and  inside  the  hock  joint  towards  the  front;  holds  foot  for- 
ward bending  hock  joint  when  standing. — Bone  Spavin,  Page  158. 

Lameness  severe  at  first ;  pus  discharged  over  top  of  hoof. — Gravel. 

Lameness,  severe;  crack  in  the  wall  of  the  hoof  extending  downward  or 
upward. — Quarter  Crack,  Page  172. 

Lameness  severe  especially  when  on  hard  roads;  leg  held  loose  when  stand- 
ing; dark  spot  found  where  corn  is  located.     This  spot  generally  con- 
tains pus  and  causes  pain  when  pushed. — Corns,  Page  161. 
Lameness  severe;  pastern  joint  swollen,  heated,  tender;  bony  bunch' usually 

on  side  of  joint. — Ringbone,  Page  173. 
Lameness  sometimes;  small  swelling  on  inside  of  fore  leg. — Splint,  Page 

176. 

Lameness  that  is  worse  when  exercised ;  coffin-joint  is  not  bent  when  walking; 
stands  on  toes  when  possible;  excessive  pressure  produces  pain;  points 
affected  foot  out  when  standing.— Coffin-joint  Lameness. 
Leg  enlarged;  glands  inside  of  the  leg  swollen  and  sore;  manipulation  of 
leg  causes  pain ;  chills  followed  by  fever. — Big  Leg,  Page  153. 


144  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Leg  held  loose  when  standing;  lameness  severe  especially  when  on  hard 
roads;  dark  spot  found  where  corn  is  located.  This  spot  generally  con- 
tains pus  and  causes  pain  when  pressed. — Corns,  Page  161. 

Leg. — Hind  leg  usually  drags;  swelling  little  below  stifle-joint;  muscles 
appear  cramped. — Stifled,  'Page  177. 

Legs  and  ears  of  mare  are  cold;  some  fever;  bowels  constipated;  secretion 
of  milk  small ;  may  be  some  inflammation  of  the  udder. — Milk  Fever, 
Page  93. 

Leg  swollen  on  inside  just  below  the  knee ;  an  abscess  may  form. — Bruised 
Knee. 

Looking  toward  flank;  pain  moderate  but  continuous;  lies  down  often  or 
stands  stretched  out  as  if  to  urinate. — Indigestion,  Page  167. 

Manure  scanty,  hard  and  dry;  mild  colicy  pains  which  may  become  severe 
when  condition  is  not  relieved. — Constipation,  Page  161. 

Manure  thin  and  watery;  bowels  move  often. — Diarrhea,    Page  162. 

Milk  secretion  small;  ears  and  legs  cold;  some  fever;  bowels  constipated; 
may  be  some  inflammation  of  the  udder. — Milk  Fever,  Page  93. 

Mouth  inflamed;  discharge  of  saliva;  sometimes  frothy;  tongue  swollen 
sometimes ;  eating  difficult. — Sore  Mouth,  Page  96. 

Mouth  slavers;  swallowing  frequently  attempted;  neck  arched;  often  makes 
peculiar  noise. — Choking,  "Page  80. 

Moves  hind  quarters  with  difficulty;  nose  often  turned  towards  flank;  high 
fever;  colicky  pains;  frequent  and  scanty  passage  of  urine  that  is  dark 
and  thick. — Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys,  Page  167. 

Mucus. — Profuse  discharge  of  tears  and  mucus  from  eyes;  eyes  red  and 
inflamed;  lids  swollen  sometimes;  strong  light  irritating. — Sore  Eyes, 
Page  96. 

Muscles  appear  cramped ;  lump  or  swelling  little  below  stifle-joint ;  hind  leg 
usually  drags. — Stifled,  Page  177. 

Muscles  of  body  hard  and  stiff ;  jaw  held  shut ;  cannot  eat ;  sweats  pro- 
fusely; head  elevated;  nose  protrudes;  easily  excited;  "haw"  drawn 
across  corner  of  eye ;  horse  usually  stands. — Lockjaw,  Page  169. 

Muscles  of  shoulder  waste  away ;  skin  seems  to  grow  to  bone ;  muscles  on 
outside  of  shoulder  blade  seem  to  disappear. — Sweeny,  Page  179. 

Neck  arched;  mouth  slavers;  swallowing  frequently  attempted;  often  makes 
peculiar  noise. — Choking,  Page  80. 

Nose  has  thin  colorless  discharge  becoming  thicker  and  darker  as  the  disease 
progresses ;  pimples  on  the  lining  of  the  nostrils ;  glands  under  j;aw  large 
and  tender;  general  weakness. — Glanders,  Page  166. 

Nose  has  watery  discharge  from  its  lining;  eyes  inflamed  and  have  thick 
discharge;  head  hangs;  poor  appetite;  weakness;  constipation;  high 
fever;  sore  throat. — Pink  Eye,  Page  171. 

Nose  often  turned  towards  flank ;  moves  hind  quarters  with  diffic  ulty ;  high 
fever;  colicky  pains,  frequent  and  scanty  passage  of  urine  that  is  dark 
and  thick. — Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys,  Page  167. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES  145 

Nose  turned  toward  flank ;  severe  pain  coming  on  suddenly,  breathing  rapid ; 

pain  stops  for  a  short  time  but  soon  returns. — Spasmodic  Colic,  Page 

176. 
Pain  coming  on  suddenly ;  severe  pain ;  turns  nose  toward  flank,  and  paws ; 

breathing  rapid;  pain  stops  for  a  short  time  but  soon  returns. — Spas- 
modic Colic,  Page  176. 
Pain  continuous  in  bowels ;  fever  high ;  pulse  hard  and  rapid ;  horse  hates  to  lie 

down  and  before  doing  so  stands  with   feet  together,  legs  partially  bent 

and  hesitates  before  going  down;  sensitive  to  pressure  on  abdomen. — 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels,  Page  163. 
Pain  great;  chill  followed  by  fever;  pulse  full  and  hard;  movement  difficult 

and  stiff;  walks  on  heels. — Founder,  Page  164. 
Pain    suffered   by   horse;   looks   toward   flank;   lies   down   often   or   stands 

stretched  out  as  if  to  urinate;  pain  moderate  but  continuous. — Indiges- 
tion, Page  167. 
Pains  which  assume  a  colicky  nature;  moves  hind  quarters  with  difficulty; 

nose  often  turned  towards  flank;  high  fever;  frequent  passage  of  urine 

that  is  dark  and  thick. — Nephritis,  Page  170. 
Panting   violently;    stopping;    loses    consciousness;    falls;    breathing    slow; 

pulse  weak;  heart  beats  irregular. — Sunstroke,   Page  179. 
Paralysis  of  different  parts. — Paralysis,  Page  170. 
Part  cannot  be  used ;  displacement  of  broken  bone ;  a  grating  sound  can 

be  heard  when  the  bone  is  moved;  the  broken  bone  may  be  felt;  much 

pain  and  swelling. — Fractures,  Page  166. 
Pastern. — Hollow  of  pastern  is  swollen,  red  and  tender ;  cracks  and  chaps 

extend   in   all   directions   and   often  bleed  in   cold   weather. — Scratches, 

Page  175. 
Pastern-joint  swollen;  heated,  painful;  severe  lameness;  bony  bunch  usually 

on  the  side  of  the  joint. — Ringworm,  Page  95. 
Pains  which  appear  colicy  and  may  be  severe  if  condition  is  not  relieved; 

manure  scanty,  hard  and  dry. — Constipation,  Page  161. 
Patches  of  hair  come  off;  skin  rough  and  scaly;  severe  itching.     Usually 

affects  head  and  neck  first. — Mange,  Page  170. 
Pawing  and  turning  nose  toward  flank;  severe  pain  coming  on  suddenly; 

breathing  rapid ;  pain  stops  for  a  short  time  but  soon  returns. — Spasmodic 

Colic,  Page  176. 

Pawing  now  and  then ;  sluggishness ;  no  appetite ;  general  uneasiness. — In- 
digestion, Page  167. 
Perspiration  profuse ;  muscles  trembling,  swollen  and  stiff ;  hind  quarters  lame 

and  stiff;  difficulty  in  moving;  urine  dark  in  color;  often  hind  parts  go 

down  before  horse  can  be  moved  to  stable;  animal  makes  unsuccessful 

efforts  to  get  up. — Azoturia,  Page  152. 
Perspiring  freely;   breathing   difficult;   trembles  violently;   if  forced  to   go 

staggers  and   seems   unconscious  until  he   falls;   attack   usually  occurs 

when  the  horse  is  exercised  soon  after  feeding. — Stomach  Staggers,  Page 

177. 


146  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Pimples  on  the   lining  of  the   nostrils ;   nose   has   thin   colorless   discharge 

becoming  thicker  and  darker  as  the  disease  progresses;  glands  under  jaw 

large  and  tender;  general  weakness. — Glanders,  Page  166. 
Puffy  swelling  on  front  part  of  hock  joint. — Bog  Spavin,  Page  158. 
Puffy  swelling  on  inside  and  outside  of  leg  just  in  front  of  large  tendons. 

By  pressure  the  joint  oil  is  forced  from  side  to  side — Thoroughpin,  Page 

180. 
Puffy  swelling  on  leg,  usually  on  the  outside  just  above  the  fetlock-joint. — 

Wind  Puffs,  Page  181. 
Pulse    full    and    rapid ;    chill    followed'   by    fever ;    short,    dry,    husky    cough ; 

bowels  constipated. — Bronchitis,  Page  159. 
Pus  discharged  from  a  cavity  in  the  flesh  for  long  periods ;  does  not  heal 

readily. — Fistula,  Page  163. 
Pus  discharged  from  crack  in  horny  frog  of  foot;  pus  foul  smelling;  hoof 

dry;  heel  feverish;  tenderness  and  lameness  more  noticeable  when  foot 

hits  hard  object. — Thrush,  Page  180. 
Pus  found  in  a  dark  spot  on  hoof;  affected  leg  held  loose  when  standing; 

lameness  severe  especially  when  on  hard  roads.     The  dark  spot  usually 

contains  pus  and  causes  pain  when  touched. — Corns,  Page  161. 
Pus  discharged  over  top  of  hoof;  severe  lameness. — Gravel. 
Rapid  and  full  pulse;  chill  followed  by  fever;  short,  dry  and  husky  cough; 

bowels  constipated. — Bronchitis,  Page  159. 
Rattling  sound  in  the  lungs  detected  by  putting  the  ear  to  the  chest ;  cough ; 

chill  followed  by  a  fever  which  gradually  increases ;  quickened  breath- 
ing; rapid  pulse. — Pneumonia,  Page  171. 
Reeling;  head  thrown  up;  seems  stupid;  staggers;  may  fall  insensible  and 

then  get  up  as  though  nothing  had  happened ;  sometimes  horse  only 

stops,   gives  a  few  convulsive  movements   of  his   head  and   shivers. — 

Blind  Staggers,  Page  152. 
Roaring  or  whistling  sound  with  each   inspiration   of  air,  especially  when 

exercised. — Roaring,  Page  173. 
Running  sore  that  does  not  heal  easily ;  discharge  of  pus  often  continues  for 

long  periods;  cavity  in  the  flesh. — Fistula,  Page  163. 
Saliva  discharge  from  mouth ;  saliva  is  sometimes  frothy ;  eating  difficult ; 

mouth  inflamed ;  tongue  sometimes  swollen. — Sore  Mouth,  'Page  96. 
Saliva  runs  from   mouth ;   swallowing  frequently  attempted ;   neck   arched ; 

often  makes  peculiar  noises. — Choking,  Page  80. 
Shivering  after  stopping  and  giving  a   few   convulsive   movements   of   the 

head;  in  severe  cases  horse  stops,  throws  head  up,  acts  stupid,  staggers, 

reels  and  may  fall  insensible  only  to  get  up  in  a  few  moments  as  though 

nothing  had  happened. — Blind  Staggers,  Page  152. 
Shoulder  muscles   wasting   away ;   skin   seems   to   grow   fast   to   the  bone ; 

muscles  on  outside  of  shoulder  blade  seem  to  disappear. — Sweeny,  Page 

179. 
Skin  over  shoulder  blade  seems  to  grow  fast  to  bone ;  muscles  of  shoulder 

waste  away  and  seem  to  disappear. — Sweeny,  Page  179. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES  147 

S'kin  rough  and  scaly;  severe  itching;  hair  comes  off  in  patches.     Usually 

affects  head  and  neck  first. — Mange,  Page  170. 
Slimy,  whitish  discharge  of  an  offensive  nature;  signs  of  general  debility. — 

Whites,  Page  180. 

Slobbering  when  drinking;  head  held  to  one  side;  eating  with  difficulty; 
spitting  out  food ;  loss  of  flesh ;  swelling  on  face  or  under  lower  jaw : 
pus  often  discharged  from  swelling. — Abnormal  Teeth. 

Sluggishness;  no  appetite;  pawing  now  and  then;  general  uneasiness. — 
Indigestion,  Page  167. 

Soreness  and  sniall  swelling  just  at  the  bottom  and  inside  the  hock-joint 

towards  the  front ;  lameness  improving  with  exercise ;  holds  foot  forward, 

bending  hock-joint  when  standing. — Bone  Spavin,   Page  158. 
Sound. — Grating  sound  can  be  heard  when  part  is  moved ;  the  broken  bone 

may  be   felt;  pain  and  swelling;  bone  broken  and  displaced;  part  cannot 

be  used. — Fractures,  Page  166. 
Spot  that  is  dark  and  usually  contains  pus  found  on  hoof;  pressure  on  spot 

causes  pain;  affected   leg  held   loose  when   standing;  lameness   severe 

especially  when  on  hard  roads.— Corns,  Page  161. 
Spot  that  is  tender  found  by  pressure  on  sole  of  foot,  frog  or  heel ;  lameness ; 

removing  shoe  and  finding  no  nail,  prick  or  corn. — Stone  Bruise,  Page 

177. 
Sprains    of   ligaments    and    muscles. — Sprains   of    Ligaments   and    Muscles, 

Page  176. 
Staggers ;   head   thrown   up ;   seems   stupid ;   reels ;   may   fall   insensible  and 

then  get  up  as  though  nothing  had  happened;  sometimes  horse  only 

stops,  gives   a  few   convulsive  movements   of  his  head   and   shivers. — 

Blind  Staggers,  Page  152. 
Stiff  and  difficult  movement;  walks  on  heels;  chill  followed  by  fever;  great, 

pain ;  pulse  full  and  hard. — Founder,  Page  164. 
Stopping  of  horse;  head  thrown  up;  seems  stupid;  staggers;  reels;  may  fall 

insensible  and  then  get  up  as  though  nothing  had  happened;  sometimes 

horse  only  stops,  gives  a  few  convulsive  movements  of  his  head  and 

shivers. — Blind  Staggers,  P'age  152. 
Stopping;  panting  violently;  losing  consciousness;  falling;  breathing  slow; 

pulse  weak;  heart  beats  irregular. — Sunstroke,  Page  179. 
Stupid    actions    of   horse;    head    thrown    up;    stops;    staggers;    reels;    may 

fall  insensible  and  then  get  up  as  though  nothing  had  happened;  some- 
times horse  only  stops,  gives  a  few  convulsive  movements  of  his  head 

and  shivers. — Blind  Staggers,  Page  152. 
Swallowing  attempted   frequently ;   saliva   runs   from   mouth ;   neck  arched ; 

often  makes  peculiar  noise. — Choking,  Page  80. 
Swallowing  difficult;  when  drinking  some  of  the   water  runs  out  through 

the  nose;  throat  usually  swollen;  some  fever;  coughing.— Sore  Throat, 

Page  175. 


148  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Sweats  profusely;  muscles  of  body  nard  and  stiff;  jaw  held  shut;  cannot 
eat;  head  elevated;  nose  protrudes;  easily  excited;  "haw"  drawn  across 
corner  of  eye ;  horse  usually  stands. — Lockjaw,  Page  169. 

Swelling  just  below  the  knee  and  on  the  inside  of  the  leg;  an  abscess 
may  form. — Bruised  Knee. 

Swelling  just  below  stifle  joint;  muscles  appear  cramped;  drags  stifled  leg. 
Stifled,  Page  177. 

Swelling  on  face  or  under  lower  jaw;  pus  often  discharged  from  swelling; 
slobbering  when  drinking;  head  held  to  one  side;  eating  with  difficulty; 
spitting  out  food;  loss  of  flesh. — Abnormal  Teeth. 

Swelling  on  the  elbow  that  is  soft  and  flabby  and  contains  a  watery  fluid. 
It  increases  in  size  and  becomes  hot  and  tender. — Shoe  Boil,  Page 
175. 

Swelling  on  top  of  head  at  first;  later  there  is  some  pain  and  the  swelling 
is  full  of  pus ;  feverish  condition  of  the  parts. — Poll  Evil,  Page  172. 

Swelling,  small  and  sore  just  at  the  bottom  and  inside  the  hock- joint 
toward  the  front ;  lameness  improving  with  exercise ;  holds  foot  for- 
ward bending  hock-joint  when  standing. — Bone  Spavin,  Page  158. 

Swelling  that  is  puffy  and  feels  as  if  it  contained  air;  usually  on  the  outside 
of  the  leg  just  above  the  fetlock-joint. — Wind  Puffs,  Page  181. 

Swelling  that  is  puffy  on  inside  and  outside  of  leg  just  in  front  of  large  ten- 
dons. By  pressure  the  joint  oil  is  forced  from  side  to  side. — Thorough- 
pin,  Page  180. 

Swelling  that  is  puffy  on  the  front    of  hock-joint. — Bog    Spavin,  Page  158. 

Swelling  that  is  small  on  inside  of  foreleg;  sometimes  lameness. — Splint', 
Page  176. 

Swollen  glands  inside  of  the  leg;  leg  enlarged;  manipulation  of  leg  causes 
pain;  chills  followed  by  fever. — Big  Leg,  Page  153. 

Swollen  in  hollow  of  pastern ;  swelling  red  and  tender ;  cracks  and  chaps 
extend  in  all  directions  and  often  bleed  in  cold  weather. — Scratches,  Page 
175. 

Swollen  and  inflamed  joint  following  a  wound  on  the  leg  in  which  there 
is  a  slippery  fluid;  horse  becomes  very  lame;  fever;  loss  of  appetite; 
intense  pain;  as  inflammation  increases  the  fluid  becomes  darker  and 
may  contain  pus. — Open  Joint,  P'age  170. 

Tears. — Profuse  discharge  of  tears  and  mucus  from  eyes;  eyes  red  and 
inflamed;  lids  swollen  sometimes;  strong  light  irritating. — Sore  Eyes, 
Page  96. 

Tender  and  hot  swelling  on  the  elbow;  it  is  also  soft  and  flabby  and  con- 
tains a  watery  fluid. — Shoe  Boil,  Page  175. 

Tenderness  and  lameness  of  foot  more  noticeable  when  foot  hits  hard  object ; 
slight  discharge  of  foul  smelling  ptis  from  crack  in  horny  frog;  hoof 
dry,  heel  feverish. — Thrush,  Page  180. 

Tender  spot  found  on  sole  of  foot,  frog  or  heel  by  pressure;  more  or  less 
lameness ;  removing  the  shoe  and  finding  no  nail  prick  or  corn. — Stone 
Bruise,  Page  177 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES 


149 


Throat  sore;  high  fever;  constipation;  weakness;  poor  appetite;  head  hangs; 

watery  discharge   from   lining  of  nose ;  eyes  become  very  red  with   a 

thick  discharge. — Pink  Eye,  Page  171. 
Throat  swollen;  some  fever;  coughing;  water  runs  out  through  the  nose  while 

drinking;   swallowing  difficult. — Sore  Throat,  Page  175. 
Tongue   swollen   sometimes;   mouth   inflamed;   discharge  of   saliva;   sometimes 

frothy ;  eating  difficult. — Sore  Mouth,  Page  96. 


/¥'. 


A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
I. 

K.' 
L. 
M. 
N. 
O. 
P. 

Q- 
R. 
S. 
T. 
U. 
V. 
X. 
Y. 


Bony  Structure  of  the  Horse. 


Lower  jaw.  Z. 

Head.  a. 

Atlas.     •  b. 

Axis.  .  c. 

The  remaining  five  cervical  vertebrae.  d. 

Spinous  processes  of  the  back  and  withers.        e. 

Lumbar  vertebrae.  f- 

Sacrum. 

Tail  bones.  2. 

Shoulder  blade.  4. 

Arm  bone.  5. 

Bones  of  the  fore  arm.  6. 

Large  cannon  bone.  9. 

Knee  bones.  11- 

Small  cannon  bone. 

Lower  pastern  bone. 

Sesamoid  bones.  14. 

Pastern  bone. 

Coffin  bone. 

Ribs. 

Pelvis. 

Thigh  bone  (femur). 

Stifle  bone   (patella). 

Leg  bones  (tibia  and  fibula). 


Hock  bone  (tarsal). 

Large  cannon  bone  (metatarsal). 

Upper  pastern  bone. 

Sesamoid  bones. 

Lower  pastern  bone. 

Coffin  bone. 

Neck  ligaments  (ligamentum  nuchas). 

Cranium. 

Orbital  cavity. 

Incisor  teeth. 

Molar  teeth. 

Shoulder  joint. 

Cartilage  of  prolongation. 

Rib  cartilages. 

Elbow  bone   (ulna). 

Point  of  hip. 

Point  of  croup. 

Ischiurn. 

Hip  joint. 

Stifle  joint. 

Stifle  bone. 

Calcaneum. 

Cuboid. 


150  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Trembling  of  muscles;  hind  quarters  lame  and  stiff;  profuse  perspiration; 
difficulty  in  moving;  urine  dark  in  color;  often  hind  parts  go  down 
before  horse  can  be  moved  to  stable ;  muscles  swollen  and  rigid ;  animal 
makes  unsuccessful  efforts  to  get  up. — Azoturia,  Page  152. 

Trembling  violently;  perspiring  freely;  breathing  difficult;  if  forced  to  go 
staggers  and  seems  unconscious  until  he  falls;  attack  usually  occurs 
when  the  horse  is  exercising  soon  after  feeding. — Stomach  Staggers, 
Page  177. 

Urine. — Frequent  and  scanty  passage  of  urine  that  is  dark  and  thick;  horse 
moves  hind  quarters  with  difficulty;  often  turns  his  nose  toward  his 
flank;  high  fever;  collicky  pains. — Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys,  Page 
167. 

Water  runs  out  through  the  nose  when  drinking ;  swallowing  difficult ;  throat 

swollen;  some  fever;  coughing. — Sore  Throat,  Page  175. 

Whistling  or  roaring  sound  with  each  inspiration  of  air,  especially  when  ex- 
ercised.— Roaring,  Page  173. 

Whitish  and  slimy  discharges  of  an  offensive  nature ;  signs  of  general  debility. 
—Whites,  Page  180. 

Worms  passed  in  manure ;  hair  rough ;  appetite  changeable ;  signs  of  ill  health. 
— Intestinal  Worms,  Page  167.  • 

Wound  on  leg  in  which  there  is  a  slippery  fluid.  Soon  the  joint  becomes 
swollen  and  inflamed;  horse  becomes  very  lame;  fever;  loss  of  appetite; 
intense  pain;  as  the  inflammation  becomes  more  severe  the  fluid  be- 
comes darker  colored  and  may  contain  pus. — Open  Joint,  Page  170. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES 


151 


iiillJiJiJiiiii 


TREATMENT   FOR   DISEASES    OF   HORSES. 

Abortion. 

This  is  the  expulsion  of  the  embryo  colt.  It  is  caused  by  inflammation 
of  the  bowels,  kidneys,  bladder  or  lungs.  Blows  from  other  animals,  over- 
work, or  falls  are  also  causes. 

Symptoms. — Coming  in  heat  early,  straining,  neighing,  swelling  of  the 
vulva,  flanks  falling  in,  pawing  and  kicking  are  indications  of  abortion. 

Treatment. — Prevention  is  most  practical.  Prevent  the  above  named 
causes.  Feed  properly,  avoid  constipation,  bloating  from  frozen  foods,  etc. 

Azoturia. 

This  is  a  disease  of  the  liver  and  blood-forming  functions.  It  is  usually 
caused  by  overfeeding  during  the  lighter  working  periods  which  do  not  give 
enough  exercise  to  carry  off  the  food.  It  attacks  the  horse  shortly  after  being 
taken  from  the  stable,  or  onto  the  road.  It  causes  partial  paralysis  of  the  hind- 
quarters. 

Symptoms. — In  mild  cases  this  affection  sometimes  appears  as  lameness 
in  one  limb.  In  severe  cases  the  horse  suddenly  loses  the  spirit  of  starting  out. 
Dullness,  heavy  flanks,  dilated  nostrils,  pinched  face  and  marked  trembling  are 
visible.  Muscles  of  loins  swell,  horse  moves  stiffly,  sweats  profusely,  drops 
behind  and  soon  falls.  When  the  horse  falls  it  is  usually  hard  for  him  to  recover. 

Treatment. — Here,  also,  prevention  is  best.  Watch  your  stock.  Regu- 
late the  feed.  Let  the  animal  get  enjoyment  from  eating.  Most  animals  as  well 
as  human  beings  will  over-eat.  Exercise  regularly  or  turn  out  into  the  pasture 
every  day. 

In  severe  cases  give  5  drams  of  aloes,  followed  by  4  drams  of  bromide  of 
potassium  which  may  be  given  again  in  o  hours.  This  quiets  the  horse. 

Hot  fomentations  such  as  blankets  rung  out  of  hot  water  placed  on  loins  or 
small  of  the  back  eases  the  spinal  cord,  muscles,  liver  and  kidneys  and  help  the 
kidneys  to  act. 

Barrenness. 

This  is  a  condition  in  mares  which  prevents  conception.  It  often  causes 
great  loss  where  one  can  use  the  colts  to  good  advantage.  The  condition  should 
be  eliminated  if  possible  as  it  often  injures  both  mare  and  stud,  also  decreases 
the  number  of  mares  that  can  be  successfully  served  in  a  neighborhood.  The 
causes  are  over  acidity  and  abnormal  conditions  of  the  womb.  Inversions,  re- 
version and  closed  womb  are  causes  which  necessitate  a  veterinarian.  In  case 
of  over  acidity  use  the  remedy  given  below. 

Treatment. — Take  one  cake  of  bread  yeast  and  dissolve  in  one  pint  of 
boiled  lukewarm  water.  First  flush  the  vagina  with  boiled  water,  then  with  clean, 
well  oiled  hands  (rubbed  with  sweet  or  olive  oil)  and  smooth  finger-nails,  insert 

152 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  153 

hand  into  womb  gently  dilating  it  with  the  fingers.  About  three  to  six  hours  be- 
fore serving  the  mare,  inject  the  yeast  mixture.  This  is  the  most  successful 
method  used  by  breeders. 

Big  Head. 

This  is  a  disease  of  the  bones  in  the  head  and  causes  them  to  become  soft 
and  porous.  There  is  an  enlarged,  swollen  condition  of  the  head  from  which 
the  disease  gets  its  name.  It  affects  all  types  of  horses,  mules,  etc.,  and  is  found 
under  all  conditions.  No  cause  is  known,  but  the  idea  is,  that  it  is  a  condition 
due  to  microbes. 

Symptoms.— The  beginning  of  the  disease  is  not  noticeable.  Hock  lame- 
ness, rheumatism,  and  straining  of  the  back  are  indications.  Loss  of  vitality,  ir- 
regular appetite  and  stumbling  often  occur.  Balls  of  food  drop  from  mouth  into 
manger  when  the  bones  become  badly  porous.  The  disease  spreads  to  other  parts 
of  the  body. 

Treatment. — A  veterinarian  is  the  one  to  perform  the  lesions  oftentimes 
necessary.  The  animal  should  be  given  a  change  of  conditions ;  take  to  high  al- 
titude if  possible. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  disease  acid  lime  to  the  drinking  water.  One  peck 
of  lime  slaked  in  a  keg  of  water  is  satisfactory  and  inexpensive. 

Give  a  tablespoon ful  of  powdered  bone  meal  with  each  feed  and  give  free 
access  to  plenty  of  rock  salt,  also  give  foods  which  are  rich  in  mineral  salts,  such 
as :  oats,  beans,  cottonseed  meal,  etc. 

Big  Leg. 

This  is  shown  by  many  different  names,  but  the  actual  disease  is  a  swollen 
inflamed  condition  of  the  leg  usually  affecting  the  two  hind  legs.  Sluggish  ani- 
mals are  susceptible  also  well  fed  animals  in  which  case  it  is  due  to  an  excess  of 
food  elements  in  the  blood. 

Symptoms. — Disease  starts  with  a  chill ;  there  is  high  temperature,  rapid 
hard  pulse,  quick  breathing,  uneasiness,  bowels  constipated,  scanty  urine,  and 
the  horse  perspires  freely.  There  is  a  swelling  on  the  inside  of  thigh  which 
surrounds  the  limb  arid  extends  down  to  the  foot.  Swelling  grows  larger  and 
becomes  permanent.  Hair  often  comes  off. 

Treatment. — Bathe  parts  with  hot  water  and  follow  with  applications 
of  cloths  soaked  in  a  solution  of  hot  vinegar  and  water,  equal  parts,  to  which  has 
been  added  2  ounces  of  caustic  potash  per  gallon.  Dry  thoroughly  and  bathe  with 
camphorated  soap  liniment.  Put  the  animal  on  light  diet  and  give  complete  rest. 

Blind  Staggers. 

This  is  known  by  a  number  of  names.  It  is  due  to  congestion  of  blood  in 
the  vessels  of  the  brain,  caused  by  excessive  exertion,  extreme  heat,  stimulants, 
or  by  an  ill  fitting  collar  stopping  blood  circulation.  Short  fat  animals  usually 
are  the  ones  affected. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  stops  suddenly  with  eyes  staring,  with  nostrils 
dilated  and  shakes  the  head,  or  stands  quietly  braced  till  he  staggers  and  falls. 
Convulsive  movements  and  death,  as  a  rule,  follow. 


154 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES-TREATMENT 


155 


2.     Cured  Spavin 


a.     Young  Spavin 


156 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT 


157 


COCKED    ANKLE 

Kcsult    of    Corn*   and    Similar 
Disease* 


Crooked     Hind     Ug«     With 
Cocked    Ankle    at    X 

BLFMISHES  THAT  CAN  BE  PREVENTED  EASIER  THAN  THI.Y 
CAN  BE  CURED 


158  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Treatment. — Remove  above  causes.  A  veterinarian  should  perform  any 
operation  necessary.  Prevention  is  the  easiest.  Allow  good  movement,  check 
the  bowels  carefully,  give  plenty  of  pure  food  and  water. 

Remove  any  obstruction  of  circulation  such  as  a  tight  collar.  If  an  opera- 
tion, such  as  tapping  the  jugular  vein  or  removing  abscesses,  is  necessary,  call  a 
veterinarian.  In  case  the  horse  becomes  unconscious,  bathe  the  head  with  cold 
water  and  rub  the  legs  with  strong  mustard  water. 

Blood  Poisoning. 

This  is  due  to  the  infection  of  a  wound  or  cut.  The  poison  from  the  affected 
part  is  taken  up  by  the  blood  and  carried  through  the  system. 

Symptoms. — If  the  case  has  progressed  far  the  symptoms  are  very 
marked.  The  animal  is  feverish,  will  not  eat,  breathes  rapidly,  and  oftentimes  it 
is  delirious. 


Blood   Poisoning.  Bad  Case  of  Internal  Poisoning. 


Treatment. — This  trouble  can  mostly  be  prevented  by  the  proper  and 
immediate  care  of  all  wounds,  no  matter  how  slight.  The  wound  should  be 
washed  out  with  some  good  antiseptic  solution  such  as  hydrogen  peroxide.  Clean 
it  out  thoroughly. 

Kerosene  is  also  good  to  pour  on  the  part,  or  wash  it  with  carbolic  acid  water, 
1  part  to  30  parts  water.  Bathe  the  part  with  hot  water  and  if  on  the  foot  or  lower 
part  of  the  leg,  rub  the  leg  well  toward  the  wound  and  away  from  the  heart. 

Bog  Spavin. 

This  is  a  smooth,  round  tumor  just  in  front  and  a  little  inside  of  the  hock 
joint.  Bog  Spavin  may  cause  lameness. 

Treatment. — Rest  is  good.  Strong  liniments  and  blisters  are  satisfactory. 
Early,  deep  and  well  performed  cauterization  by  a  good  veferinarian  is  the  most 
successful. 

Bone  Spavin. 

This  occurs  on  the  hock  joint  and  may  be  seen  in  various  parts  of  it. 
This  is  a  disease  of  the  bone  and  tends  to  enlarge  the  joint,  weakening  it  and 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  159 

then  causing  lameness.  Sprains  and  torn  ligaments  caused  by  galloping,  jumping 
or  hard  driving  on  heavy  roads  are  causes.  Any  injury  to  the  hock  joint  may  bring 
it  on. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  lameness  which  is  very  characteristic  of  spavin 
and  which  is  more  pronounced  when  the  horse  first  starts  out.  After  being  driven 
some  distance  the  lameness  may  disappear.  The  horse  steps  on  the  toe  of  the 
affected  foot  while  traveling  and  mostly  stands  with  the  heel  of  the  affected  foot 
resting  on  the  toe  of  the  other  foot. 

Treatment. — The  object  is  to  weld  together  the  diseased  parts  of  the 
bone.  To  do  this  give  absolute  rest.  Apply  fomentations  of  hot  water  to  reduce 
inflammation.  Blisters  may  be  applied  with  good  results.  Firing  is  often  effective. 


Bots  in  a  Horse's  Stomach  and  the  Gadfly  Which  Causes  Them. 


Bots. 

Caused  by  gadflies  laying  eggs  on  the  hair  of  horses.  The  horse  gets  them 
into  his  mouth  while  biting  himself  and  they  are  taken  into  the  stomach,  where 
they  hatch  out,  attaching  themselves  to  the  lining  of  the  stomach  where  they  feed. 
They  cause  indigestion  and  severe  inflammation  of  the  stomach  resulting  in  the  loss 
of  flesh.  A  horse  badly  affected  with  bots  acts  something  like  one  with  spas- 
modic colic.  It  often  turns  head  to  side,  rolls  on  ground,  rubbing  sides.  Rubs 
against  stall  or  posts  trying  to  relieve  himself. 

Treatment.—  Rub  him  with  a  rag  soaked  in  kerosene.    Also  scrape  eggs 

off  with  a  knife.  , 

Feed  horses  raw  potatoes  in  feed.    This  has  been  found  effective  by  farmers 
in  driving  bots  from  horses.    Give  the  animal  one  quart  of  molasses  in  two  quart 
of  "milk,  and  follow  with  a  good  cathartic. 

Bronchitis. 

This  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes.     When  exerted  the 
animal  breathes  heavily.     Often  appetite  is  lost  and  he  becomes  debilitated 
other  cases,  there  is  a  cough,  discharge  of  whitish  matter,  and  a  rattle  wnicn 


160 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


be  heard  when  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  chest,  behind  the  shoulder  blade.    The 
causes  are  the  same  as  those  of  a  cold  and  generally  starts  in  the  same  way. 

Treatment. — Rest  is  necessary.  One  ounce  of  Fowler's  solution  of  ar- 
senic water,  three  times  daily,  is  good.  Mustard  application  on  the  chest  is  ef- 
fective. Linseed  mashes,  scalded  oats,  grass  or  green  fodder  is  good  for  food. 

Capped  Hock. 

This  is  a  condition  caused  by  horses  hitting  or  rubbing  their  hocks  against 
the  walls  or  partitions  of  their  stalls. 

Symptoms. — A  development  of  a  bruise  at  the  point  of  the  hock.  At 
first  the  swelling  is  spread,  but  later  becomes  like  a  callous.  If  pus  collects  the 
bones  are  liable  to  become  diseased.  It  often  causes  lameness. 


A  Contrivance  to  Break  a  Horse  of  the  Habit  of  Kicking  in  the  Stall. 

Treatment. — Sometimes  a  capped  hock  indicates  a  kicking  horse.  Hang 
a  heavy  bag,  attached  to  a  rope,  directly  behind  the  horse  (see  illustration).  This 
will  break  him  of  kicking. 

If  there  is  inflammation,  apply  hot  water.  Most  treatments  are  slow  in  pro- 
ducing results.  Apply  strong  tea  made  from  marshmallow  leaves. 

A  severe  blister  at  the  start  is  go6d. 

Catarrh. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose  and  throat.  It 
is  usually  caused  by  cold  or  irritation  of  these  membranes. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  161 

Symptoms. — Membrane  is  dry  and  congested.  Then  it  becomes  pink  or 
red,  a  watery  discharge  follows,  which  later  becomes  thick  and  pus  like.  There  are 
also  chills  followed  by  fever.  The  bowels  are  constipated. 

Treatment. — Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  this  disease  from  developing 
into  something  worse.  Let  the  horse  rest  for  a  time.  While  feeding  pour  hot 
water  on  the  hay.  Give  feed  mashes  and  linseed  gruel.  Steam  the  head  by  hold- 
ing pail  of  hot  water  to  which  has  been  added  a  tablespoonful  of  carbolic  acid, 
under  the  nose. 

Give  Y-Z  dram  of  reduced  iron,  three  times  a  day,  mixed  with  dampened  feed. 
Sprinkle  chloride  of  lime  in  stall. 

Colic. 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  colic  but  the  most  common  are  wind 
and  spasmodic  colic.  It  is  a  painful  crampy  condition  of  the  bowels  caused  by 
some  irritant  or  by  undigested  food.  Frozen  foods  cause  development  of  gas 
and  a  crampy  pressure  results.  The  intestinal  movements  are  much  like  the 
opening  and  closing  of  the  hand. 

Symptoms. — Restlessness,  lying  down,  turning  the  head  to  the  side, 
kicking  the  belly,  sweats,  shows  severe  pain ;  all  indicate  colic. 

Treatment. — Baking  soda,  charcoal,  or  warm  lard  (1  quart),  any  one  of 
which  if  given  at  once  is  good.  Charcoal  absorbs  a  thousand  times  its  own  weight 
in  gas  so  a  small  quantity  given  immediately  often  saves  much  pain  and  trouble. 

Essence  of  Jamaica  ginger  in  2  ounce  doses,  given  in  hot  water,  is  effective. 

Constipation. 

This  is  a  "bound  up"  condition  of  the  bowels-  When  permitted  to  go  too 
far,  it  causes  colic  which  is  often  very  hard  to  deal  with.  Colts  are  very  often 
troubled  with  this  disease.  It  is  due  to  improper  food  and  feeding. 

Treatment. — Always  keep  horses  in  good  condition  by  great  care  and 
feeding.  Prevention  is  best.  Oils  are  good  to  give  internally.  Injections  may 
have  to  be  given  to  soften  .f  eces.  Use  warm  soapy  water.  Light  sloppy  diets  are 
good.  Green  foods  give  relief.  As  young  colts  represent  potential  farm  and 
money  values,  one  must  make  every  effort  to  save  them. 

Corns. 

The  forefeet  are  mostly  subject  to  corns.  These  are  formed  on  the  sole  in 
the  angle  between  the  bar  and  outside  wall  of  the  hoof.  The  color  of  the  affected 
parts  is  often  darkened  by  blood  escaping  from  a  ruptured  blood  vessel.  The  live 
horn  is  affected  and  dry,  moist,  pus  gathering  corns  are  formed.  These  are  caused 
by  contracted  heels,  long  feet,  bad  shoeing,  and  excessive  knee  action  in  traveling. 

Symptoms. — Lameness,  restlessness,  pawing  the  bedding  behind  him, 
feet  advanced,  pus  or  inflammation  in  affected  part. 

Treatment. — Always  remove  cause  if  possible.  Correct  the  shoeing. 
Keep  the  hoof  moist  by  bedding  with  damp  tanbark.  Use  wet  clay,  flaxseed 


162  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

meal,  or  a  greasy  hoof  ointment  to  keep  the  hoof  from  becoming  hard  and  dry. 
The  horse  may  be  made  to  stand  with  his  feet  in  a  box  containing  any  of  these. 

Moist  corns  should  be  cut  out.  Inflammation  should  be  poulticed  and  cold 
baths  applied.  If  wound  looks  red,  dress  with  oakum  balls  saturated  in  a  weak 
solution  of  aloes  or  spirits  of  camphor. 

If  there  is  pus,  open  surface  for  its  escape,  then  inject  a  weak  solution  of 
bichloride  of  mercury  to  cleanse  the  wound. 

Curb. 

This  is  a  bunch  on  the  back  part  of  the  hock,  where  in  the  normal  state  there 
should  be  a  straight  line.  It  is  usually  caused  by  a  sprain  of  the  tendon  or  one 
of  its  sheaths.  Overbent,  coarse,  or  thick  hocks  are  especially  subject  to  curb. 

Symptoms. — There  is  usually  a  bunch  spread  over  the  affected  surface, 
which  sometimes  develops  permanent  lameness.  Later  the  bunch  diminishes 
and  becomes  set.  A  curb  makes  the  horse  unsound. 

Treatment. — Cold  applications  are  best  at  the  start.  This  stops  the  in- 
flammation. Later,  use  pressure  of  bandages,  to  reduce  the  size.  Blisters  of 
cantharides  and  rubbing  with  iodine  ointment  are  good.  Strong  applications  of 
a  mixture  of  salt,  vinegar,  turpentine  and  eggs  are  good.  Take  one  ounce  each  of 
vinegar  and  turpentine,  %  cup  of  salt,  eggs  to  make  a  good  running  fluid.  Apply 
with  a  rag. 

Horse  should  have  rest  and  a  high  heeled  shoe  on  the  foot  of  the  affected  leg. 

Diarrhea. 

This  is  due  to  irritation  of  the  intestines  and  bowels ;  it  is  caused  by  eating  bad 
food,  by  having  poor  teeth,  low,  damp  pastures  and  stables.  Colds  and  fast 
traveling  are  also  causes.  Long,  rangy  horses  are  subject  to  diarrhea.  The 
horse  suffers  pain  in  the  abdomen,  has  loss  of  appetite,  passes  liquid  feces,  and 
becomes  thin  and  poor. 

Treatment. — It  is  often  simple,  for  good  care  and  change  of  feed  and 
water  is  probably  all  that  is  necessary. 

Give  a  quart  of  raw  linseed  oil.  Flour  and  water  are  good,  also  starch  water. 
These  should  be  given  in  a  light  paste  form. 

Distemper. 

This  is  an  infectious  disease  usually  found  in  young  animals.  After  its  ap- 
pearance, it  usually  leaves  the  animal  in  sound  condition,  however,  it  may  develop 
a  wind-broken  horse.  The  abscesses  most  always  break  on  the  outside.  It  is 
passed  directly  from  one  horse  to  another  or  indirectly  through  the  discharge  being 
left  on  the  fences,  in  drinking  places  or  by  contaminated  air  where  the  affected 
animals  have  been.  Horses  from  3  to  5  years  old  often  get  it  in  being  shipped 
from  one  locality  to  another. 

Symptoms. — During  the  coming  of  the  last  permanent  teeth,  the  animal 
is  most  susceptible  to  this  disease.  Horse  is  sluggish,  loses  its  appetite,  its  coat 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  163 

becomes  dry,  legs  become  cold,  eyes  and  mouth  become  rosy  red,  and  a  discharge 
is  noticeable. 

Treatment. — Moistened  hay,  warm  baths  and  coverings,  with  proper  diet 
are  the  most  practical.  Keep  the  animal  from  catching  cold  as  complications  set 
in  at  that  time.  Isolate  the  animal  so  the  other  stock  may  not  be  exposed. 

During  the  fever  one  handful  of  Glauber's  salts,  three  times  a  day,  is  good. 
Give  a  tablespoon ful  of  baking  soda  several  times  a  day.  Steaming  the  head  with 
tar  is  quite  effective.  Do  not  apply  blisters  or  strong  liniments  to  the  throat. 
A  serum  can  now  be  obtained  from  your  veterinarian  to  combat  the  disease. 

Dropsy. 

This  is  known  by  the  tissues  being  distended  with  a  liquid  and  the  skin  when 
pressed,  does  not  fill  out  but  retains  the  impression.  Good  food  and  plenty  of 
exercise  is  found  to  give  the  better  results. 

Enteritis. 

This  is  an-inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

The  symptoms  are  much  like  those  of  colic.  However,  it  may  be  distinguished 
from  colic  by  the  fact  that  the  animal  hesitates  to  lie  down.  It  will  often  stand 
with  all  four  feet  close  together.  In  colic  relief  is  obtained  in  pressure  on  the 
abdomen,  while  in  enteritis  this  causes  much  pain.  If  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  disease  is  enteritis  call  a  good  veterinarian  at  once,  as  it  is  very  fatal. 
The  pain  may  be  relieved  by  hypodermic  injections.  These  must  be  given  by  the 
veterinarian. 

Fistula  and  Poll-Evil. 

This  is  a  disease  usually  noted  by  tubes  extending  from  the  external  wound 
to  an  internal  defection  of  cancerous  or  tumorous  nature.  The  tubes  discharge 
a  pus  to  the  outer  surface.  There  may  be  fistulas  in  the  shoulder,  poll  or  head, 
and  foot.  The  treatment  can  be  very  similar.  The  disease  is  caused  by  abscesses, 
wounds  or  bruises,  blows  from  a  whip  or  a  club  or  butting  the  head  or  shoulder 
against  a  post  or  building. 

Symptoms. — Soreness  in  front  legs  often  follow  an  injury.  Swollen  lines 
appear  on  the  withers  which  are  painful  to  the  touch.  The  swelling  enlarges 
and  the  animal  objects  to  being  rubbed  or  touched  at  affected  spot.  When  the 
tumor  appears  it  is  well  to  probe  with  a  stiff  doubled  wire  for  the  tube  or  the 
opening.  This  may  be  hard  to  find  until  the  pus  begins  to  run. 

Treatment. — At  first  applications  of  cold  water  are  good  as  a  preventive. 
Later,  when  the  tube  is  found,  flush  it  clean  with  warm  boiled  water.  Then 
tie  a  small  lump  of  blue  vitriol  to  a  cord  and  gently  push  it  to  the  bottom  of 
the  tube.  Leave  six  inches  of  string  hanging  out.  As  soon  as  the  tube  pro- 
jects a  little  from  the  flesh  this  shows  it  has  been  eaten  off  at  the  base. 

Pull  out  the  string  and  the  tube,  and  wash  out  the  cavity  with  hydrogen 
peroxide  and  keep  the  wound  clean.  Take  good  care  that  no  infection  enters 


164 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


the  wound.  If  there  are  several  tubes,  the  same  treatment  applies,  as  it  is  the 
root  from  which  the  tubes  start  that  one  wishes  to  eat  out  with  the  blue 
vitriol. 

Before  pus  forms  apply  oil  of  cedar. 

Pour  crude  oil  into  the  tube  several  times  a  week. 


Fistula  of  long  standing.  There  is  considerable 
inflammation,  with  hair,  skin,  and  underlying  tissues 
destroyed. 

Founder. 

This  disease  affects  the  feet  and  usually  the  front  feet.  In  unusual  cases 
all  four  feet  are  affected.  Founder  does  not  affect  any  other  part  of  the  body. 
There  are  many  causes  for  this  disease ;  hot  sand  on  feet,  causing  contraction 
of  the  hoofs ;  giving  cold  water  while  warm,  or  after  heavy  feeding  of  grain ; 
or  fast  driving.  Any  injury  to  the  feet  is  liable  to  bring  it  on. 

Symptoms. — There  are  many  symptoms,  but  the  main  one  is  loss  of 
power  to  travel.  The  horse  appears  stiff  and  cramped  because  he  does  not 
want  to  use  his  feet.  The  horse  stands  with  all  four  feet  well  under  the  body 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  disease. 

Diarrhea  may  start  and  fever  appear,  rapid  perspiration,  feet  hot  and  dry 
and  intense  pain  shown  by  pressing  the  hoofs. 

Treatment. — Prevention  here,  as  in  all  diseases  where  possible,  is  sug- 
gested. Proper  care  and  common  sense,  in  the  use  of  an  animal  gets  the  best 
results.  Avoid  the  causes  given  in  the  above  paragraph. 

Fill  a  tub  partly  full  of  clay  and  stand  the  horse  with  the  affected  feet  in 
it.  Make  the  clay  moist  and  cool.  The  feet  should  be  placed  in  a  tub  partly 
full  of  warm  clay  or  water.  After  an  hour  they  may  be  changed  to  cold  sand 
or  water. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT 


165 


Along  with  the  foot  baths  give  large  doses  (four  ounces)  of  saltpeter  in 
a  pint  of  water  four  times  in  24  hours.  If  the  horse  Hes  down  put  a  good 
poultice  in  a  sack  and  tie  to  each  foundered  foot. 


A   Good   Way   to  Doctor   a   Horse's  Feet.    This  Treat- 
ment  Should   Not   Be   Overdone. 


Galls. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  especially  with  tender  horses  to  see  that  the 
harness,  collar  or  saddle  does  not  cause  sores  by  friction.  A  gall  is  like  a 
water  blister  at  first,  and  when  the  skin  breaks,  the  hair,  dirt  and  sweat  work- 
ing into  it  will  cause  a  bad  sore.  It  is  often  called  a  "sit  fast."  When  the 
callous  forms  it  generally  remains  as  a  permanent  bunch. 


166  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Treatment. — Proper  adjustment  of  the  harness  and  use  of  good  pads  will 
prevent  these.  Gradual  work  and  good  care  in  the  spring  will  prepare  the 
body  for  the  harder  work. 

Cold  water  rubs,  after  the  saddle  or  harness  is  taken  off,  will  prove  a  fine 
preventive. 

Two  eggs  in  a  pint  of  witch  hazel  is  fine  to  rub  on  the  gall.  In  well 
developed  cases,  the  tumor  can  be  cut  off  and  treated  with  good  results. 

Fracture. 

This  is  a  break  in  a  bone  and  is  one  of  the  most  serious  conditions  to 
which  an  animal  may  become  subject.  There  are  many  forms  of  fracture,  and 
the  displacements  always  call  for  the  service  of  a  good  veterinarian.  They 
are  generally  caused  by  external  violence. 

Symptoms. — The  most  positive  symptom  is  the  inability  of  the  horse  to 
use  the  part.  Make  a  close  examination ;  if  a  grating  sound  is  heard,  or  a 
bunch  appears  on  the  injured  part,  a  fracture  has  likely  taken  place. 

Treatment. — Call  a  competent  veterinarian  to  take  care  of  the  injury.  The 
rapidity  with  which  a  fracture  will  heal  depends  on  the  age  of  the  animal. 
Old  animals  with  broken  limbs  had  better  be  shot.  Young  valuable  animals 
can  be  rigged  up  in  a  sling  until  the  fracture  heals.  The  animal  must  not  be 
allowed  to  use  the  injured  part. 

Glanders  or  Farcy. 

Glanders  and  Farcy  are  the  same  except  that  Glanders  affects  the  head 
and  Farcy  other  parts  of  the  body,  frequently  the  hind  legs.  This  disease  is 
very  contagious  and  can  be  passed  from  animals  to  people.  It  usually  results 
in  death  to  the  animal. 

Cattle  seem  to  be  rather  immune  to  tne  disease.  The  cause  of  Glanders 
is  due  to  a  specific  virus  of  this  disease  being  transmitted  by  direct  contact. 
It  is  spread  by  watering  troughs,  stable  men,  hitching  posts  and  anything  on 
which  has  been  any  of  the  discharge  from  the  nose  of  an  affected  horse. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  sticky,  colorless  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  Also 
little  ulcers  appear  on  the  membrane  lining  of  the  nostrils.  In  Farcy  little 
bunches  which  are' hot  and  sensitive  to  the  touch  appear  under  the  skin.  These 
are  usually  found  on  the  hind  legs. 

Treatment. — Most  states  require  the  animal  to  be  Killed  immediately  and 
allow  an  indemnity.  This  is  perhaps  best,  considering  its  highly  contagious 
nature.  Good  feeding  and  tonics  sometimes  stop  the  progress  but  usually  the 
horse  will  ultimately  die  because  of  the  disease  breaking  out  again.  The  cost 
of  a  veterinarian  is  slight  compared  with  .the  damage  an  uncared  case  can  do. 
All  animals  dying  of  this  disease  should  be  burned  at  once,  and  the  stables 
thoroughly  disinfected. 

People  who  are  around  animals  suffering  with  this  disease  must  exercise 
the  greatest  care  as  it  is  extremely  infectious  and  fatal. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  167 

Heaves. 

This  is  really  a  continuous  affection  of  the  breathing  m'uscles  which  leads 
to  paralysis  of  them.  It  is  usually  found  where  improper  food,  such  as  dry 
clover,  or  damaged  feed  is  given.  Horses  are  affected  much  as  people  are 
with  asthma.  This  is  not  a  fatal  disease.  It  could  be  avoided  if  young  horses 
were  driven  correctly  and  not  over  driven  at  the  beginning. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  catchy  moving  in  the  flanks  while  breathing,  also 
a  grunting  cough.  Anyone  can  detect  heaves  although  stramonium,  if  placed 
in  the  mouth,  will  allay  it.  The  lungs  lose  their  elasticity.  Indigestion  often 
accompanies  heaves.  Be  careful  in  buying  a  horse  that  he  is  not  "doped"  with 
certain  things  which  makes  it  hard  to  detect  the  ailment  for  several  hours. 

Treatment. — In  old  cases  there  is  no  cure.  Wetting  the  hay  and  grain 
relieves  it  and  enables  the  horse  to  work  more  efficiently. 

A  tablespoonful  of  baking  soda  given  to  the  horse  before  a  drive  will 
enable  it  to  travel  well.  A  diet  of  chopped  carrots,  potatoes  or  turnips  is  good. 
Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic,  following  directions,  also  gives  relief.  Give  a 
teaspoonful  of  oil  of  tar  in  a  pint  of  warm  water. 

Impure  Blood. — (See  Cattle  Department,  page  88). 

Indigestion. 

There  are  two  kinds — acute  or  that  coming  quickly,  and  chronic,  the  form 
developed  by  continuous  irritation.  It  is  usually  caused  by  improper  feeding, 
so  prevention  is  the  easiest  and  most  logical  thing.  Weak  digestive  organs, 
improper  food,  bad  teeth,  worms,  working  too  soon  after  feeding,  are  all 
causes. 

Symptoms. — Irregular  appetite,  refusing  food  at  times  and  at  other  times 
being  greedy,  loss  of  flesh,  passed  grain,  and  colicky  pains  are  signs. 

Treatment. — Put  teeth  in  good  shape. 

For  worms  give  1  tablespoonful  of  turpentine. 

Equal  parts  of  ginger,  baking  soda,  and  powdered  gentian  thoroughly 
mixed.  Give  one  heaping  tablespoonful  morning  and  evening  before  feeding. 
Dissolve  in  l/2  pint  of  water  and  give  as  a  drench. 

Digestive  Tonic. — One  heaping  tablespoonful  of  the  following  well  mixed : 
Glauber's  salt,  2  pounds ;  common  salt,  1  pound ;  baking  soda,  Y*  pound. 

Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys. — (See  Cattle  Department,  page  89). 

Insects  and  Snake  Bites.— (See  Cattle  Department,  page  90). 

Intestinal  Worms. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  worms  which  infest  the  diges- 
tive tract  of  horses.  They  are  usually  more  prevalent  in  the  large  bowel. 
They  are  known  as:  tapeworms,  flukes,  roundworms,  pinworms,  stomach 
worms  and  strongyles.  They  are  often  passed  from  the  body  in  bunches. 

Symptoms. — Colicky  pains,  poor  appetite,  constipation,  or  diarrhea  are 
indications  that  a  horse  has  worms.  These  symptoms  with  worms  in  the 
manure  are  proof  the  horse  has  worms. 


1GS 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Worms  That  Trouble 
a  Horse. 


Intestinal  or  Round  Worms. 


Liver  and   Lung   Worms. 


Pin  or  Large  Intestinal  Worms. 


Stomach    Worms. 


DISEASES  ()F   HORSES— TREATMENT  169 

Treatment. — Turpentine  is  one  of  the  best  and  simplest  remedies.  Give 
one  ounce  of  turpentine  and  half  a  pint  of  linseed  oil  as  a  drench.  An  ounce 
of  tobacco,  once  each  day,  for  two  weeks,  is  good.  For  pinworms  inject  a  quart 
of  warm  salt  water  each  day. 

Knuckling. 

This  is  a  deformity  of  the  fetlock  joint.  It  is  also  known  as  cocked  ankle. 
It  is  caused  by  a  sprain  of  the  tendon,  or  from  weakness  at  birth. 

Other  diseases  of  the  foot  also  bring  it  about.  The  hind  legs  arc  usually 
affected  since  they  do  the  greater  amount  of  work  in  carrying  the  body. 

Symptoms. — Dislocation  or  knuckling  forward  of  the  bones  in  the  ankle. 
The  heels  do  not  touch  the  ground  in  traveling  and  this  develops  clubfoot. 

Treatment. — It  cannot  really  be  cured  in  its  later  stages.  Line  firing  is 
often  effective  in  treating  the  disease.  Complete  rest  is  needed.  Proper  shoe- 
ing should  be  given.  A  thick  heeled  shoe  will  help.  If  necessary  an  operation 
should  be  performed  by  a  veterinarian. 

Lockjaw. 

This  is  a  disease  of  the  muscles  in  the  face,  neck  and  body.  It  usually 
causes  spasms.  From  the  fact  that  this  serious  and  fatal  disease  is  caused  by 
a  germ  entering  the  system  from  the  soil  through  simple  nail  pricks,  deep 
cuts,  and  skin  bruises,  which  heal  on  the  surface,  one  can  see  the  great  care 
necessary.  All  cuts  should  be  immediately  washed  with  kerosene  oil  or 
hydrogen  peroxide.  Use  a  small  syringe  and  probe  to  the  bottom  of  the  wound 
before  releasing  the  liquid.  If  the  wound  can  be  kept  open  in  pure  air  it  is 
better  as  the  germ  thrives  best  where  there  is  no  oxygen.  The  poison  is 
easily  absorbed  in  the  system. 

Symptoms. — In  acute  attacks  the  animal  will  die  in  four  or  five  days. 
There  is  difficulty  in  chewing  and  swallowing;  the  "haw"  covers  the  inner 
part  of  the  eye;  jaws  become  locked  and  cannot  be  opened;  noises  make  the 
animal  go  into  spasms ;  the  tail  is  elevated  and  immovable ;  the  muscles  are 
rigid.  Lockjaw  is  different  from  spinal  meningitis. 

Treatment. — In  a  serious  wound  an  injection  of  serum  should  be  given. 
Have  a  veterinarian  give  it.  The  animal  should  be  isolated  so  as  to  be  kept 
quiet.  Seven  drams  of  Barbados  aloes  and  two  drams  of  solid  extract  of 
belladonna  should  be  given  at  once.  No  treatment  can  be  sure.  Often  the 
cost  of  treatment  will  be  more  than  the  animal  is  worth. 

Loco  Disease. 

This  is  caused  by  animals  eating  the  loco  weed  which  grows  in  the  great 
plain  region.  Their  appetite  for  hay  and  grass  diminishes,  and,  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  nutriment  in  the  plant  they  starve  to  death.  Barium  salts  are 
found  in  the  weed  and  tend  to  develop  an  unsound  mind.  The  animal  staggers 
about  and  finally  loses  power  to  travel. 


170  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

The  animal  has  fits  and  delirium.  If  taken  at  once,  coaxing  will  often 
cause  the  animal  to  eat  mashes  and  well  prepared  foods.  It  should  be  imme- 
diately fattened  and  shipped  out  of  the  section. 

Mange. 

Small  mites  burrow  under  the  skin,  especially  when  dirty,  and  lay  their 
eggs.  These  hatch,  causing  a  sore  on  which  a  scab  is  found.  The  head,  mane, 
tail,  and  back  are  affected.  Rubbing  produces  a  pleasant  feeling  to  the  horse 
as  shown  by  a  stretching  of  the  head  and  upper  lip. 

Treatment. — Wash  parts  well  with  soap  and  water,  then  brush  in  a  solu- 
tion of  lj/2  ounces  of  tobacco  and  2  pints  of  boiled  water.  Every  15  days  a 
new  brood  of  mites  appear,  so  continue  the  application.  The  harness  and 
stables  should  be  disinfected.  A  lime  and  sulphur  dip  is  good. 

Milk  Fever. — (See  Cattle  Department,  page  93). 


Open  Joints. 

An  external  condition  caused  by  blows,  bruises,  falls,  kicks  and  other  in- 
juries. Carelessness  in  use  of  forks,  boards,  etc.,  result  in  cuts  which  cause 
the  fluid  to  escape  from  the  joint.  A  horse  with  a  stiff  leg  is  not  of  much 
value. 

Treatment. — Warm  fomentations  or  cold  water  applications  should  be 
applied  at  once.  The  joint  fluid  should  be  checked  so  it  cannot  escape.  Im- 
mediate aid  is  essential  and  will  save  the  animal  lots  of  unnecessary  pain  and 
suffering.  A  sling  in  which  to  put  the  horse  will  be  found  to  relieve  the  pain 
caused  by  standing  on  the  limb. 

Paralysis. 

This  is  a  condition  where  use  of  the  muscular  parts  of  the  body  are  lost. 
It  may  affect  part  or  all  of  the  body.  Most  cases  are  caused  by  some  injury 
to  the  brain  or  spinal  cord.  The  causes  are  pressure  or  tumors  on  the  brain, 
or  disease  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  brain.  General  paralysis  causes  imme- 
diate death. 

Symptoms. — Animal  falls ;  is  powerless  to  move,  and  unable  to  swallow ; 
tongue  hangs  out ;  tail  is  curved ;  and  limbs  get  cold. 

Treatment. — Chloroform  liniment  may  help  relieve  the  local  pain.  The 
cause  must  always  be  removed.  Fly  blister  or  strong  liniment  should  be 
applied.  Internally  give  1  dram  powdered  nux  vomica  or  2  grains  of  sulphate 
of  strychnine.  Some  give  a  teaspoonful  of  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  twice 
a  day  in  water.  Light  food,  good  air  and  clean  stables  should  be  had  all  the 
time. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT 
Pink  Eye  or  Influenza. 


171 


This  in  an  inflammation  which  extends  over  the  eye  and  because  of  its 
color  named  "Pink  Eye."  Blows  from  whips,  twigs,  clubs,  or  dust,  sand,  flies 
or  any  foreign  substance  cause  this  condition. 


Influenza  or  Pinkeye.    Note  the  Swelling  at  "X." 


Influenza  or  Pinkeye.  Notice  swelling  at 

"X."     Also   note  the   eye   of  this 

animal  is  normal. 

Symptoms. — Watering  of  the  eye,  swollen  lids,  pink  flush,  fever,  protrud- 
ing "haw"  and  dilated  ^upil  distinguish  the  disease.  Pus  may  form  and  the 
lid  becomes  granular. 

Treatment. — Remove  any  cause.  Examine  thoroughly.  Take  horse  away 
from  any  cause  of  ammonia  gas ;  keep  off  dusty  roads.  Wash  eye  with  warm 
water  mixed  with  white  of  egg.  Salt  solution  is  a  good  wash,  also  dissolve 
saltpeter  in  water  (1  heaping  teaspoonful)  twice  a  day. 

Pneumonia. — (See  Cattle  Department,  page  95). 


172 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 
Poll  Evil. 


This  disease  is  similar  to  fistula  and  is  in  fact  fistula  of  the  head.  It  is 
caused  by  hitting  the  head  against  a  low  beam  or  door.  (For  treatment  see 
Fistula,  Page  163). 


Poll  Evil. 

Quarter-Crack. 

A  fissure  in  the  front  wall  of  the  hoof  of  the  hind  leg  is  called  a  toe-crack. 
When  in  the  front  feet  it  is  called  a  sand  or.  quarter-crack.  They  are  caused 
by  dry  wall  of  the  hoof,  or  a  change  from  damp  to  dry  roads,  floors,  etc. 
Thick  hoofs  on  small  feet  are  subject  to  cracks.  Heavy  nails,  improper  nail- 
ing, cankers,  quittor  or  corns  with  pus  cause  cracks. 

Symptoms. — A  fissure  is  usually  the  only  sign.  A  discharge  often  comes 
from  the  crack,  inflammation  is  present,  also  slight  lameness. 

Treatment. — Prevent  enlargement  of  cracks.  Keep  the  horn  of  hoof  well 
oiled.  Put  clasps  on  fissures.  Poulticing  the  hoof  gets  it  back  into  good 
condition.  Sometimes  a  leather  "shoe"  will  keep  the  sand  out. 

Quittor. 

This  is  a  disease  of  a  fistulous  nature  on  the  foot  which  causes  pus  to 
form  and  flesh  to  slough  off.  It  occurs  in  both  fore  and  hind  feet.  The  heels 
and  quarters  are  most  liable  but  the  coronet  or  top  of  the  hoof  is  also  at- 
tacked. Bruises  in  which  infection  develops  from  mud,  foul  water,  etc.,  are  the 
widest  source  of  this  ailment.  Heavy  horses  with  heavy  hanging  hair  on  the 
fetlocks  and  thick  skins  are  most  usually  affected. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  173 

Symptoms. — Lameness  usually  precedes  the  development  of  a  quittor. 
The  opposite  leg  becomes  swollen  because  of  doing  work.  Thirst  increases. 
A  rubbery  feeling  tumor  develops.  Pus  usually  comes  from  tubes  that  form 
in  the  injury. 

Treatment. — Mud  and  dirty  water  should  be  avoided.  Wash  off  the  foot 
with  warm  water.  Cold  water  should  be  applied  to  stop  the  increase  of  inflam- 
mation. Use  poultices  of  linseed  meal  or  boiled  turnips.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  dressing  the  wound  and  the  poultice  should  be  renewed  every 
two  days. 

Put  wet  balls  of  oakum  in  a  solution  of  eight  drops  of  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury to  2  tablespoonfuls  of  water  and  add  a  few  drops  of  muriatic  acid  to  dis- 
solve the  mercury. 

The  tubes  after  cleaning  with  boiled  water  can  be  flushed  out  with  tinc- 
ture of  iodine. 

Rheumatism. 

This  is  a  disease  similar  to  that  of  people  resulting  from  practically  the 
same  causes  and  treated  in  the  same  way.  Damp,  cold  stables  are  always 
likely  to  develop  rheumatism  in  not  only  the  animal,  but  also  the  attendants. 
It  is  usually  felt  in  the  joints  and  is  a  condition  which  can  be  considered  as 
one  in  which  the  joint  fluid  is  affected.  Plenty  of  exercise,  good  food  and 
treatment,  applications  of  good  liniments  to  the  swollen  parts  are  recom- 
mended. 

Ringbone. 

Often  when  a  young  horse  is  being  trained,  a  slight  bruise  may  be  made 
near  the  coronet  of  the  hoof,  before  the  permanent  hardening  or  development 
of  the  foot  takes  place.  Much  later,  a  ringlike  or  bulging  surface  can  be 
seen.  There  are  high,  middle  or  low  ringbones.  Interfering  while  traveling 
causes  many.  Short,  upright  pastern  joints  are  often  affected. 

Symptoms. — Lameness  is  the  first  symptom  and  there  is  some  heat  in 
the  ankle.  In  traveling,  the  heel  is  placed  on  the  ground  first.  If  the  ring- 
bone interferes  with  the  joints  or  tendons  it  may  cause  permanent  lameness. 

Treatment. — At  the  beginning,  cold  applications  may  stop  the  disease. 
Strong  blisters  may  be  applied.  Firing  is  often  successful.  If  in  lower 
joints  a  cure  is  doubtful.  Proper  shoeing  may  help.  No  animal  with  ring- 
bone should  be  bred  as  some  consider  the  disease  a  hereditary  one. 

Roaring. 

Usually  the  left  side  of  the  larynx  is  affected  by  some  object  obstructing 
the  breathing  apparatus  of  the  horse.  Well  established  cases  cause  the  roar- 
ing noise  when  drawing  air  into  the  lungs.  A  paralysis  of  the  muscles  is 
caused  by  some  derangement  of  the  two  nerves  which  supply  energy  to  either 
side  of  the  throat.  Medical  treatment  is  of  no  use  in  set  cases.  The  inser- 
tion by  a  veterinarian  of  a  whistling  tube  gives  about  the  best  results  in  the 
more  serious  cases. 


174 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  175 

Scratches. 

An  inflammation  of  the  glands  of  the  skin  in  the  regions  of  the  heels.  It 
is  usually  the  result  of  improper  feeding  or  overfeeding  on  grain,  or  irrita- 
tion while  traveling  on  slushy,  muddy  roads.  Caustic  soap  washes,  improper 
bandaging  or  severe  exertion  are  frequent  causes.  There  are  scaly  substances 
on  the  heels  and  cracks  develop  similar  to  chapping  on  hands. 

Treatment. — Clean  the  part.  Clip  the  hair  close  to  the  skin  and  apply  a 
warm  poultice  of  bread  and  milk;  repeat  in  12  hours.  Then  cleanse  thor- 
oughly and  dust  boric  acid  into  the  sores. 

A  good  vaseline  or  ointment  of  1  teaspoonful  sugar  of  lead,  carbolic  acid, 
10  drops,  and  lard  is  used  by  many  farmers.  Pine  pitch  smeared  on  parts 
proves  successful.  Cover  with  a  cloth.  Grease  the  parts  twice  a  day  when 
the  horse  is  worked. 

Screwworms — Or  Maggots  in  Wounds. 

The  fly  bites  the  horse  and  sucks  the  blood.  It  lays  eggs  in  wounds, 
which  develop  into  small  maggots  that  burrow  in  and  cause  poisonous  devel- 
opment. This  may  be  stopped  by  applying  kerosene  oil  to  kill  them.  The 
kerosene  is  antiseptic  and  healing.  It  acts  somewhat  as  though  it  seared 
the  wound  and  causes  it  to  heal  from  within  toward  the  outer  surface,  in 
place  of  just  on  the  surface  leaving  a  wound  that  may  later  develop  into  a 
poisonous  sore. 

Tobacco  juice  is  a  good  remedy  to  give. 

Hickory  wood  ashes  are  used  by  some  farmers. 

Shoe  Boil. 


Shoe   Boil   or   Capped    Klbow 


Kicking  with  the  hind  feet  or  chafing  of  the  belly 
band  of  the  harness  causes  a  bunch  to  appear.  It  may 
appear  on  any  part  of  the  lower  limbs.  They  have  a 
core  which  distinguishes  them  from  a  common  swell- 
ing. It  is  similar  to  both  a  tumor  and  an  abscess. 

Treatment. — These  should  be  cut  once  across  in 
both  directions  with  a  sterilized,  sharp,  clean  knife. 
A  good  poultice  will  often  soften  the  core  which  can 
then  be  pressed  out.    A  mixture  of  salt  and  soap  is  a  powerful  application  to 
soften  and  bring  it  to  a  head. 

Sore  Throat. 

An  inflammation  of  the  throat  is  serious  more  from  the  point  of  the  dif- 
ferent diseases  into  which  it  may  develop,  than  of  the  temporary  disease 
itself.  The  chief  causes  are  chills  and  exposure. 

Symptoms. — A  cough  develops  and  there  is  difficulty  in  swallowing. 
Glands  below  the  ears  and  between  the  jaws  are  swollen.  Discharge  comes 
from  nostrils  and  breathing  becomes  hard. 


176  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Treatment. — Steaming  the  nostrils  is  advised.  Put  oil  of  turpentine 
in  a  bucket  of  hot  water  and  have  the  animal  inhale  the  fumes.  Repeat  this 
treatment  frequently.  The  horse  should  be  fed  soft  mashes  and  if  possible, 
fresh  grass.  Good  light  liniments  should  be  rubbed  from  ear  to  ear  on  the 
throat  and  a  short  distance  from  the  windpipe.  A  mixture  of  kerosene  and 
lard  is  good. 

Spasmodic  Colic. 

The  small  intestines  often  become  clogged  with  indigestible  food.  It 
is  often  caused  by  drinking  cold  water  while  the  animal  is  warm;  also  from 
cold  rains  or  drafts. 

Symptoms. — Spasmodic  colic  starts  suddenly.  Horse  stamps;  looks 
around  to  side ;  cramps ;  shows  acute  pain ;  paws ;  rolls ;  gets  up  and  down : 
sweats  and  only  passes  a  small  quantity  of  urine.  Colic  is  usually  quite 
plain  to  all  horse  owners. 

Treatment. — Give  the  animal  an  injection  of  6  quarts  warm  water  which 
contains  ^4  CUP  of  glycerine.  Chloral  hydrate  is  good  given  one  ounce  in  a 
pint  of  water  as  a  drench.  Baking  soda,  1  tablespoonful  in  a  pint  of  water 
absorbs  the  gas.  About  30  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  relieves  the  pain. 
Walking  helps  horse  to  pass  the  gas.  Force  must  be  avoided.  Tansy  tea  has 
never  been  known  to  fail  for  many  farmers  who  use  it.  Jamaica  ginger  in  2 
ounce  doses  gives  good  results. 

Splints. 

This  is  a  bony  enlargement  on  the  cannon  bone  between  the  knee  or  hock 
and  the  fetlock  joint.  They  are  usually  found  on  the  inside  of  the  forelegs. 
It  is  sometimes  the  cause  of  permanent  lameness. 

Symptoms. — Passing  the  hand  over  the  limb  will  usually  show  presence 
of  small  bunch  or  splint.  It  is  often  caused  by  external  hurts.  Race  horses 
often  twist  the  leg  and  cause  the  small  crack,  which  nature  in  healing  and 
strengthening,  covers  with  a  bony  bunch.  There  is  lameness  and  limb  is 
carried  outward  from  below  the  knee.  There  is  pain  under  pressure  and 
usually  swelling  is  shown. 

Treatment. — Not  much  attention  is  needed  in  most  cases  and  one  is  ad- 
vised against  continuously  irritating  the  part.  Surgical  treatment  is  usually 
useless.  Iodine  applied  to  the  part  has  given  good  results.  White  liniment 
is  used  also  by  many  farmers.  Eggs,  vinegar,  and  turpentine  mixed  one 
ounce  each  with  one  or  two  eggs  has  been  highly  recommended. 

Sprains. 

Most  ligaments  and  muscles  are  subject  to  external  violence  and  falls, 
slips,  etc.,  which  often  causes  them  to  become  torn.  However,  inflammation 
and  loss  of  use  are  the  usual  indications  of  a  sprain. 

Treatment. — Local  applications,  warm  fomentation,  liniments  and  blisters 
are  applied.  Rest  permits  the  torn  section  to  heal. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  177 

Stifled. 

The  stifle  or  patella  in  a  horse  compares  to  the  kneecap  in  man  and  is 
held  in  place  by  the  muscular  tendons  passing  over  the  thigh  bone.  It  acts 
in  keeping  proper  action  between  the  joint  bones.  Often  a  horse  slips, 
wrenching  the  ligaments  and  muscles  holding  the  patella  which  slips  out  of 
place.  Heavy  pulling  also  dislocates  it,  especially  in  stumpy  land. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  in  most  cases  drags  the  affected  leg  on  its  toe. 
There  is  stiffness  at  the  thigh  joint.  Horse  will  not  back  up.  When  led  forward  it 
goes  in  jumps,  dragging  the  injured  leg. 

Treatment. — If  the  dislocation  is  discovered  immediately,  a  slap  with 
the  line  or  whip  will  cause  the  bone  to  slip  back  into  place.  This  is  not  ad- 
vfoed,  however,  as  it  might  chip  or  injure  the  lining  surface  of  the  bone. 
Backing  the  horse  up  against  a  two  foot  bank  will  aid  in  the  replacement. 
Often  the  patella  can  be  worked  into  place  with  the  finger.  Placing  the 
collar  on  the  horse  then  tying  a  rope  to  the  fetlock  and  running  the  rope 
up  through  the  collar  makes  a  pulley  effect  which  is  used  by  many  farmers  in 
treating  a  stifled  horse.  The  affected  leg  is  strapped  forward  until  it  heals. 
After  the  bone  is  snapped  back  into  place  a  paste  of  salt  and  eggs  applied 
to' the  joint  will  contract  the  muscles  and  heal  the  ligaments  in  a  very  short 
time. 

Stone  Bruise. 

In  traveling,  many  horses  step  on  sharp  stones  or  get  a  stone  wedged 
between  the  shoe  and  frog.  The  pressure  is  severe  and  causes  lameness. 
The  animal  may  hobble  on  three  legs.  Pus  forms  and  poisoning  is  liable 
to  develop. 

Treatment. — Stone  should  be  removed  immediately.  Shoe  should  be  taken 
off  and  the  foot  placed  in  cold  water,  to  prevent  inflammation.  The  wound 
should  be  well  cleaned  and  poulticed  with  oakum  balls,  turpentine,  or  kero- 
sene oil.  A  blacksmith  can  pad  the  foot  with  oakum  and  a  leather-soled 

shoe. 

Stomach  Staggers. 

In  this  disease  which  results  from  improper  digestion  the  circulatory 
system  of  the  horse  may  be  affected.  The  large  colon  or  stomach  becomes 
packed  with  unpassed  feces.  It  gradually  hardens  until  death  comes.  Dry 
hay  or  stalks  often  develop  impaction. 

Symptoms.— Slight  pains  come  on.  The  animal  keeps  its  head  low.  ^  It 
paws  and  walks  around  slowly.  Lies  down  fully  stretched  out  on  its  side 
for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes.  Tapping  the  sides  brings  solid,  deadened 
sound.  The  horse  often  trembles  violently. 

Treatment.— Immediate  movement  should  be  induced.  A  long  hose  should 
be  soaped  or  well  oiled  and  run  into  the  rectum,  then  warm  soapy  water 
should,  be  gently  injected.  As  this  is  a  serious  situation  good  care  must  be 
used.  A  large  cathartic  of  1  ounce  of  powder  barbardos,  2  drams  calomel  and  1 
dram  powdered  nux  vomica;  or  1  pint  linseed  oil  and  15  drops  of  croton  oil, 


178 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


are  good.  After  a  movement  is  induced  a  quart  of  castor  oil  will  have  a  heal- 
ing affect  on  the  bowels  which  will  be  extremely  sore.  Twenty-four  hours 
are  usually  required  for  the  cathartic  to  work.  Give  plenty  of  water  to  drink. 
Rubbing  the  sides  of  the  horse  gently  with  a  soft  rag  may  aid  in  breaking  up 
the  packed  material  in  the  bowels  and  aid  the  horse  in  obtaining  a  passage. 
Ginger  and  red  pepper  are  good. 


Stringhalt, 

Stringhalt. 

So  many  conflicting  theories  are  broadcast  about  this  ailment  that  an 
attempt  to  explain  it  in  detail  is  useless.  It  is  usually  recognized  because 
of  the  jerking  up  of  the  leg.  It  affects  both  hind  legs  but  usually  only  one 
at  a  time.  Sometimes  the  downward  movement  is  as  hard  as  the  upward.  A 
competent  veterinarian  will  be  the  judge  of  what  to  do.  There  is  no  need  for 
a  man  to  attempt  the  impractical  things  that  may  be  done.  Only  those 
treatments  that  give  known  and  definite  results  are  the  ones  for  an  unskilled 
man  to  use  on  his  stock. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  179 

Sunstroke. 

During  the  hot  summer  months  all  horses  that  work  continuously  in  dry 
open  fields  are  subject  to  sunstroke.  Heavy  horses  are  the  most  liable  to  be 
affected  by  the  heat.  Improper  care  in  watering  and  feeding  induce  improper 
respiration. 

Symptoms. — Just  before  the  critical  period  the  driver  will  notice  that  he 
has  to  urge  the  animal  more  than  usual  to  get  it  to  work.  Right  then  is  the  time 
to  stop  in  a  cool  place  and  rest  the  animal.  If  the  animal  is  not  stopped  in 
time  the  perspiration  ceases,  there  is  hard  breathing,  blowing  nostrils,  stag- 
gering, and  a  fall  results.  When  the  animal  is  down  it  is  much  harder  to  aid 
in  recovering. 

Treatment. — As  stated  above,  prevention  when  first  symptoms  appear 
obtains  the  best  and  surest  results.  Take  the  horse  to  a  cool  place.  Pour 
cool  water  on  its  head  and  take  off  the  harness.  Do  not  work  the  animal 
for  several  days.  A  horse  that  is  once  affected  will  always  be  susceptible 
to  heat,  so  a  few  days  rest  at  the  right  time  is  well  given.  Do  not  bleed.  Rubbing 
the  limbs  is  good.  A  half  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  given  in  a  pint 
of  water  will  be  found  beneficial. 


Swamp    Fever. — Notice    how    animal    has    fallen    away. 
Little  blood  is  in  the  system. 

Swamp  Fever. 

In  parts  of  Manitoba,  Minnesota,  Montana,  North  Dakota,  Virginia,  Texas 
and  New  York,  the  horses  are  often  badly  affected  with  this  disease.  It  is 
known  by  many  names  and  is  easily  distinguished  in  these  localities  because 
of  the  sudden  onset  fever,  continuous  emaciation,  great  appetite  and  stag- 
gering gait.  The  mortality  is  so  great  that  no  satisfactory  treatment  has  yet 
been  found.  Stimulating  the  bowels  aids  the  horse  and  gives  much  relief. 
Cold  water  sponge  baths  are  good.  The  sick  animals  should  be  kept  apart  and 
all  places  where  the  sick  have  been  should  be  disinfected  with  a  solution  of  six 
ounces  of  carbolic  acid,  chloride  of  lime  or  compound  solution  of  cresol  to  a 
gallon  of  water.  A  potato  sprayer  is  good  to  use  in  disinfecting. 

Sweeny. 

This  is  often  due  to  lameness  or  injuries  below  the  elbow  and  not  always 

o  shoulder  diseases.    There  are  numerous  causes  because  of  the  hard  work 

carried  by  the  shoulders.    Slips,  sprains,  and  soreness  are  among  the  causes. 


180  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Symptoms. — These  are  peculiar  to  this  disease  alone.  The  lameness  is 
continuous.  Shoulder  movement  is  practically  stopped.  At  rest  the  leg  is1 
carried  forward.  Upon  stepping  forward  the  leg  is  carried  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner. The  shoulder  muscles  become  contracted  and  withers  away. 

Treatment. — Rest  will  tend  to  give  the  most  relief.  Cool  applications 
give  results.  Good  liniments  and  massaging  will  start  constructive  action. 
Pay  close  attention  that  the  ailment  does  not  get  worse.  Feed  oats  and  good 
hay.  Give  the  animal  exercise  if  it  is  not  lame. 

Thoroughpin. 

This  is  found  at  the  back  and  on  the  top  of  the  hock  in  the  part  im- 
mediately behind  the  shank  bone.  It  is  round  and  smooth.  The  swelling  is 
usually  on  both  sides  and  a  little  in  front  of  the  hamstring. 

Treatment. — Blister  when  found.  Soap  and  salt  is  good.  The  famous 
farmers'  liniment  of  vinegar,  turpentine,  and  eggs,  has  proven  successful.  If 
you  wish  to  get  a  "white"  liniment  add  ammonia,  which  will  prove  bene- 
ficial. 

Thrush. 

Draft  horses  often  get  a  bad  wound  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog  which  devel- 
ops pus.  All  horses  are  liable  to  the  disease.  Filthy  stables  and  bad,  muddy 
roads  cause  it. 

Symptoms. — Increased  moisture  in  frog  and  a  bad  smell.  Discharge  takes 
place.  There  is  lameness  only  in  bad  cases. 

Treatment. — Cleanse  thoroughly  and  remove  causes.  Pare  away  the 
diseased  parts.  A  blacksmith's  knife  is  all  right  to  use,  but  be  careful  not 
to  cut  too  deep.  Apply  a  good  poultice  of  boiled  turnips  mixed  with  a  hand- 
ful of  powdered  charcoal.  Some  cases  are  not  curable.  Proper  shoeing  will 
help  to  relieve  the  animal. 

Warts. 

Warts  or  tumors  grow  many  places  on  the  animal's  body.  Small  ones 
can  be  cut  off  with  shears  and  the  larger  ones  with  a  sharp  knife.  On 
broad-surfaced  warts  a  hot  iron  applied  will  give  good  results.  Acetic  acid 
applied  with  the  end  of  a  match  to  the  wart  will  gradually  eat  it  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  skin.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  from  burning  the  live  skin, 
and  hands  in  applying. 

Whites. 

This  is  a  common  disease  known  also  as  leucorrhea  which  consists  of  a 
whitish  discharge  from  the  womb.  It  is  due  to  subacute  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  womb  and  is  caused  by  laceration. 

Treatment. — Flushing  of  the  womb  with  warm  boiled  water  should  be 
done  first.  This  should  be  followed  three  times  a  day  with  an  injection  of 
?  teaspoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid ;  y2  dram  of  tannic  acid  in  one  quart  of  boiled 
water.  Three  drams  of  iron  sulphate  may  be  given  internally. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES— TREATMENT  181 

Wind  Puffs. 

Small  sized  puffs  appear  usually  on  the  forelegs  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
fetlock  joint  between  the  tendon  and  shin  bone.  Colts  are  often  affected. 
Horses  with  small  joints  and  too  much  knee  action  are  most  susceptible. 

Symptoms. — When  standing  on  the  foot  the  tumor  bunch  is  hard,  but 
when  foot  is  lifted  the  bunch  is  soft.  Joint  is  bent  while  standing.  The 
animal  is  often  lame. 

Treatment. — Resting  the  young  horses  tends  to  drive  it  away.  High- 
heeled  shoes  give  satisfaction,  also  cold  water  applications.  Blisters  are  used 
by  many.  Elastic  bandages  help  hold  the  joints  stiff.  Iodine  often  helps 
to  drive  them  away. 

Wounds. 

In  most  cases  local  treatment  must  be  given.  Keep  the  wound  clean  from 
flies  and  infection.  Kerosene  oil  is  always  handy  and  should  be  used.  This 
will  heal  wound  from  the  inside.  Flour  will  stop  bleeding.  Cold  water  will 
also  often  stop  bleeding.  Bandage  the  inside  of  a  dried  puff-ball  on  the  wound 
to  stop  bleeding. 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION. 

Their  Adaptability. — Sheep  are  adapted  and  fit  nicely  into  the  conditions 
and  systems  of  agriculture  in  many  sections  of  the  country.  On  most  farms, 
at  least  a  small  flock  of  sheep  would  be  profitable,  if  the  farm  organization  and 
the  help  to  care  for  them  insures  proper  management.  Sheep  are  valuable 
for  their  wool  and  mutton  and  for  the  utilization  of  lands  that  ordinarily 
grow  up  to  brush  and  weeds  or  that  are  not  adapted  to  other  classes  of  stock 
and  other  purposes  because  of  their  hilly,  broken  condition.  The  success  of  sheep 
on  ranches  of  the  West  and  on  small  farms  is  evidence  of  their  wide  range  of 
adaptability. 

Necessary  Requirements. — While  sheep  are  capable  of  utilizing  many 
weeds  and  can  live  on  scanty  lands  more  or  less  covered  with  brush,  it  is  a 
mistake  to  expect  or  to  think  that  they  will  thrive  to  the  extent  of  being 
profitable  if  maintained  under  such  conditions  altogether.  Thousands  of  sheep 
die  every  year  from  want  of  proper  feed  and  shelter  and  because  of  improper 
management.  An  abundance  of  feed  throughout  the  year  must  be  provided  if 
one  is  to  expect  the  best  results.  Sheep  are  the  most  delicate  of  all  classes 
of  farm  animals  and  require  the  attention  of  a  conscientious  and  faithful 
attendant  who  understands  the  importance  of  regularity,  gentle  and  patient 
treatment,  protection  from  excitement  caused  by  dogs,  wild  animals  and 
even  strangers,  and  who  knows  at  all  times  when  the  flock  is  thriving  properly. 
Sheep  will  not  do  well  and  cannot  be  maintained  on  low,  wet  ground.  Roll- 
ing, hilly  land  is  well  adapted  to  sheep  raising.  Land  that  grows  sweet, 
luxuriant  grasses  and  that  is  pastured  to  the  extent  that  the  sheep  get  short, 
fresh  bites,  is  ideal. 

Sheep  can  endure  cold  weather  and  do  not  require  protection  from  the 
cold  during  the  winter  unless  the  ewe  flock  should  be  bred  to  lamb  in 
late  winter  or  early  spring  when  it  will  be  absolutely  necessary  to  have 
a  warm  place  for  ewes  and  lambs  during  the  lambing  season  and  until  the 
lambs  are  well  started.  Sheep  must  be  kept  dry  and  sheds  should  be  constructed 
in  a  manner  to  keep  out  storms  and  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  being  subject 
to  winds  and  cold  drafts.  Plenty  of  pure,  fresh  air  is  necessary.  Cold  rains 
in  the  spring  and  fall  often  do  great  damage  to  flocks  that  have  been  turned 
out.  Sheep  are  of  a  dainty  disposition  and  subject  to  indigestion  and  infection 
by  parasites  where  conditions  are  not  absolutely  clean.  Pure,  fresh  water, 
clean  feed  boxes,  wholesome  feeds,  pastures  that  are  free  from  filthy  pools  and 
that  are  rotated  to  prevent  infection  from  sheep  parasites,  should  be  pro- 
vided and  are  important  requirements  for  success  in  the  sheep  industry. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep.— There  is  a  greater  variety  of  distinct  types 
among  sheep  than  any  other  class  of  farm  animals.  In  considering  sheep 
from  the  standpoint  of  wool  production  one  has  a  choice  of  medium  or 
middle  wool,  long  or  coarse  wool,  and  short  or  fine  wool  types.  Breeds 

183 


184 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


representing  these  types  will  be  noted  in  the  tabulation  of  breeds  and  their 
principal  characteristics.  The  variation  in  the  form  and  thickness  of  flesh  of 
sheep,  produces  a  range  in  the  size  and  weight  from  very  spare  wool  types 
to  very  thick  and  heavy  mutton  types.  The  medium  or  middle  wool  and 
the  long  or  coarse  wool  breeds  are  naturally  of  the  mutton  type.  The  smaller, 
fine  wool  breeds  do  not  excel  in  mutton  production.  The  larger,  fine  wool 
breeds,  more  especially  the  Rambouillet,  have  been  improved  in  mutton  form 
and  compare  more  favorably  with  other  mutton  breeds. 


Every  animal  sold  off  the  farm  carries  pounds  of  fertility  that  must  be  replaced  in  some  form. 

Choosing  a  Breed. — One's  preference  can  be  indulged  in  the  selection 
of  sheep.  The  character  of  the  land  affects  its  adaptability  for  sheep  of  a 
given  size.  Smaller  breeds  will  be  most  satisfactory  on  hilly  lands,  while 
the  larger  breeds  are  better  adapted  and  require  comparatively  level  land. 
Breeds  that  excel  in  mutton  production  are  under  ordinary  conditions  re- 
garded with  most  general  favor.  Hot  house  lambs  for  Christmas  and  winter 
market  demand  breeds  that  will  mate  in  summer.  The  Dorset  Horn  and 
Tunis  are  the  two  most  profitable  breeds  for  this  purpose. 

Selection  of  Ewe  Flock. — The  late  summer  or  early  autumn  season  is 
when  the  flock  owner  culls  his  flock  and  prepares  the  breeding  flock  that  he 
expects  to  winter.  There  is  usually  a  surplus  of  ewes  suitable  for  breeding 
and  this  offers  the  beginner,  or  one  desiring  to  increase  his  flock,  the  best  op- 
portunity to  buy.  The  owner  as  well  as  the  buyer  of  breeding  ewes  should 
avoid  non-breeding,  broken  mouthed  and  diseased  ewes.  Ewes  with  injured 


SI  IKK  I'    PRODUCTION 


185 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. 


Type 

Brood 

Nativity 

Weight 

Weight  of 
Fleece 

Distinguishing 
Characteristics 

Fine 

Woolcd 

American 
Merino 

Spain 

140-175 
90-125 

15-20 
12-15 

Nose  short,  wrinkly,  white.  Ears 
white.  Skin  wrinkled.  Rams 
have  heavy  spiral  -  shaped 
horns,  and  neavy  folds  about 
neck  and  shoulders.  Wool 
fine,  short  and  dense. 

Delaine 

Merino 

Ohio, 
Pennsylvania 

140-190 
100-150 

12-18 
9-15 

An  offshoot  of  American  Merino. 
Considerably  larger  and 
smoother.  '  Wool  longer. 
Rams  usually  have  horns, 
though  one  strain  is  without. 

Rambouillet 

France 

150-225 
125-175 

14-18 
10-14 

Considerably  larger  and  more 
rangy  than  Delaine  Merino. 
Except  in  size  and  having 
fewer  wrinkles  very  similar  to 
American  Merino.  Popular 
for  crossing  with  range  sheep 
because  of  size  and  hardiness. 

Medium 
Wooled, 
Mutton 

Southdown 

England 
Southdown 
Hills 

150-175 
125-140 

5-7 

Face  mouse  colored.  Body  very 
compact.  Excellent  for  mut- 
ton and  for  crossing  to  im- 
prove mutton  type.  Smallest 
of  down  breeds.  Hornless. 

Shropshire 

England, 
Counties 
Shropshire 
and  Stafford 

200-225 
150-160 

12-15 
9-10 

Face  dark  brown  well  covered 
with  wool.  A  very  popular 
breed,  widely  distributed  be- 
cause of  its  general  purpose 
wool  and  mutton  type.  Horn- 
less. 

Hampshire 

England, 
County  of 
Hampshire 

225-250 
175-200 

7-10 

Face  very  dark  brown  or  black. 
Ears  long  and  dark.  Some- 
what larger  and  more  rangy 
than  Shropshires.  Hornless. 

Medium 
Wooled, 
Mutton 

Oxford 

England, 
County  of 
Oxford 

250-350 
180-275 

6-10 
5-7 

Face  light  brown.  Breed  re- 
sembles Shropshire  slightly 
but  is  larger  and  more  massive 
in  frame  and  features.  Wool 
is  longer  and  more  open  in 
fleece.  Largest  of  down 
breeds.  Hornless. 

Suffolk 

England, 
County  of 
Suffolk 

200-240 
175-200 

7-9 

Face  and  head  bare  of  wool, 
glossy  black  ;  wool  on  face  not 
objectionable.  Ears  long. 
Resembles  Hampshire  except 
for  bareness  of  head.  Horn- 
less. 

Cheviot 

England  and 
Scotland, 
Cheviot  Hills 

200-225 
150-160 

8-10 

Face  and  head  bare  to  behind 
ear,  white  in  color.  Very  at- 
tractive. Very  hardy  and 
adapted  to  hilly  lands.  Usual- 
ly hornless. 

18G 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  (Continued). 


Type 

Breed 

Nativity 

Weight 

Weight  of 
Fleece 

Distinguishing 
Characteristics 

Medium 
Wooled, 
Mutton 

Dorset  Horn 

England, 
Central  and 
Southern 
Part 

215-225 
150-165 

6-8 

Face  white.  Both  rams  and 
ewes  have  horns.  Head  car- 
ries short  foretop  of  wool. 
Body  somewhat  rangy.  Pop- 
ular as  an  early  lamb  prcn 
ducer. 

Tunis 

Africa 

150-175 
120-150 

6-8 

Face  yellow  brown  or  mottled. 
Ears  large  and  pendulous. 
Usually  hornless.  Similar  to 
Dorset  Horn  in  wool  and 
ability  to  produce  winter 
lambs. 

Long 
Wooled, 
Mutton 

Leicester 

England, 
County  of 
Leicester 

225-250 
175-200 

9-11 

Face  and  head  white,  usually 
bare  of  wool.  Hornless. 
Smallest  of  long  wooled  breeds 
Fleece  long,  coarse  and  lies  in 
fine,  spiral  locks. 

Cotswold 

England, 
Cotswold 
Hills 

250-275 
200-225 

11-14 

Fancy  white,  gray  or  spotted. 
Nose  more  or  less  Roman. 
Fleece  lies  in  long,  coarse 
rather  large  pencil-like  locks. 
Hornless. 

Lincoln 

England, 
County  of 
Lincoln 

275-300 
225-250 

12-14 

Face  resembles  Cotswold  in 
color.  Good  specimens  have 
short  foretop  of  wool.  Larg- 
est and  produces  the  longest 
wool  of  all  breeds. 

udders  and  that  are  poor  milkers  are  unprofitable  for  raising  lambs  and  should 
go  to  the  butcher.  The  condition  of  the  ewe  in  late  summer  usually  indicates 
whether  she  has  raised  a  lamb  successfully  and  as  a  rule  the  thinnest  ewes  at 
this  season  are  the  best  breeders.  Never  select  ewe  lambs  with  the  object 
of  breeding  them  the  first  fall. 

The  Mating  Season. — The  gestation  period  of  the  ewe  is  on  the  average 
147  days  and  on  this  basis  and  the  time  it  will  be  most  desirable  to  have 
ewes  produce  their  lambs,  one  should  determine  when  the  ram  should  be 
turned  with  the  ewes.  March  and  April  are  desirable  months  to  have  lambs 
born  if  warm  lambing  quarters  and  all  conditions  are  suitable  for  handling 
the  flock.  Early  lambs  have  the  advantage  of  getting  more  personal  attention 
during  the  first  week  of  their  lives,  making  an  earlier  growth,  and  enabling 
the  farmer  to  put  them  onto  the  market  before  the  bulk  of  lambs  are  ready  and 
shipped. 

The  care  of  ewes  after  lambs  are  weaned,  has  much  to  do  with  suc- 
cessfully mating  them.  Lambs  should  be  carefully  weaned  so  as  to  leave 
the  ewe's  udder  in  normal  condition.  To  insure  best  results  the  ewes  should 
be  put  in  scanty  pastures  and  partly  milked  by  hand  the  day  following,  and 
again  at  intervals  of  two,  three  and  five  days  respectfully,  when  usually  there 


SHEEP   PRODUCTION 


187 


is  no  further  necessity  of  milking  them  and  the  udders  are  in  perfect  con- 
dition for  the  next  lambing  season.  Many  ewes  fail  to  raise  a  lamb  because 
their  udders  become  caked  and  ruined  as  a  result  of  weaning  the  lambs  with- 
out giving  attention  to  them. 


As  soon  as  the  ewe  flock  has  been  properly  dried  off  and  culled,  it  should 
be  given  an  opportunity  to  improve  in  condition  by  having  access  to  good 
pasture  supplemented  if  necessary  with  special  forage  crop.  Rape  of  the 
Dwarf-Essex  variety  is  a  good  crop  to  supply  extra  forage.  Pastures  may 


188  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

be  supplemented  by  feeding  oats  with  cabbage,  but  these  feeds  are  more 
expensive. 

The  system  of  improving  the  condition  of  the  ewe  and  getting  her  into 
strong,  vigorous  condition  is  called  "flushing,"  and  has  the  following  ad- 
vantages : 

The  lambs  produced  are  usually  stronger  and  more  vigorous. 

Ewes  are  more  apt  to  produce  twins  and  triplets  and  thus  increase  the 
percentage  of  increase. 

Ewes  breed  safely  within  a  shorter  period  of  time  which  accordingly 
reduces  the  time  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  watch  and  give  special  attention 
to  ewes  during  the  lambing  season. 

Feeding  the  Ewe  Flock. — The  ewe  flock  that  is  in  good  condition  at  mat- 
ing season  can  be  wintered  at  a  very  reasonable  cost  and  on  comparatively 
little  grain.  A  good  grade  legume  hay  and  roots  up  to  within  a  few 
weeks  of  lambing  time,  may  be  all  that  is  necessary.  Clover  cut  in  full 
bloom  or  alfalfa  and  other  leguminous  hays  are  best.  Oat  and  pea  hay,  blue 
Efrass,  bright  fodder  and  a  fine  grade  of  oat  straw  may  be  utilized.  Coarse 
hays  like  timothy  and  marsh  grass  and  fodders  and  hays  that  are  moldy 
and  musty  should  never  be  fed. 

For  a  few  weeks  prior  to  lambing  time  and  oftentimes  throughout  the 
winter  when  the  roughage  is  not  of  the  best  quality,  a  mixture  of  three 
parts  oats  and  two  parts  wheat  bran,  fed  at  the  rate  of  one-half  pound  per  day, 
insures  good  condition  and  milk  flow  on  the  part  of  the  ewes. 

Chopped  roots  are  excellent  for  ewes  where  they  can  be  grown  at  a  rea- 
sonable cost.  Good  corn  silage,  free  from  mold  and  not  too  acid,  can  be 
fed  as  a  suitable  substitute  for  roots  to  a  good  advantage.  Ewes  accustomed 
to  succulent  feed  can  be  safely  fed  two  pounds  of  roots  or  silage  per  head 
daily. 

After  lambing  there  is  danger  of  milk  fever  on  the  part  of  the  ewe 
during  the  first  three  days  and  grain  should  be  reduced  to  a  very  small 
amount  if  fed  at  all.  After  this  danger  is  over,  grain  feeding  should  be 
resumed  and  the  ration  increased  to  the  extent  that  the  ewes  thrive  well  and 
produce  ample  milk  for  their  lambs.  Seldom  is  it  wise  to  feed  more  than 
two  pounds  of  grain.  Keep  salt  where  sheep  have  free  access  to  it. 

Additional  Suggestions  on  Care  of  Ewe  Flock. — Keep  the  flock  exer- 
cising every  day  that  the  weather  permits. 

Do  not  allow  ewes  to  become  wet  from  storms  and  avoid  draughts  of  cold 
wind  sweeping  into  their  pens. 

Be  present  to  give  any  assistance  necessary  at  lambing  time. 

Treat  cases  of  caked  udder  by  bathing  with  hot  water,  drying  and  apply- 
ing melted  lard  or  mercurial  ointment,  repeating  this  three  times  a  day  until 
relief  comes. 

Treat  sore  teats  by  applying  vaseline  frequently.  File  the  teeth  of  the 
lamb  having  the  sharp  teeth  that  causes  the  difficulty. 

Tag  ewes  to  the  extent  that  the  wool  about  the  udder  does  not  inter- 
fere with  the  lamb. 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION 


189 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  MUTTON  SHEEP. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
score 

• 

Points  deficient 

Student's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Age                                            Teeth        

6 

10 
6 
2 

2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 

2 
3 
3 

• 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE—  24  POINTS 
Weight                     ....  estimated  actual  pounds 

according  to  age                                                          

Form,  low,  long,  symmetrical,  compact,  and  evenly  covered 
with  firm  flesh        .                  

Quality,  clean  bone  5  silky  hair  

Temperament                                            

HEAD  AND  NECK—  9  POINTS 
Muzzle  fair  size"  nostrils  large*  lips  thin;  mouth  large  

Eyes  full  bright                                                        

Face  short  bold  expression                                  

Forehead,  broad                                          

Ears  fine  erect                                       .    ••  

Neck  thick  short"  throat  clean                 

FORE  QUARTERS—  13  POINTS 
Shoulder  Vein  full                                    

2 
3 

4 
4 
3 
2 

3 
4 
3 
4 
3 

3 
3 

4 

6 

4 
4 

Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart,  strong;  forearm  full,  shank 

BODY—  13  POINTS 

HINDQUARTERS—  17  POINTS 

Tlii  oli  c    full    Yt7P*11  flA«ViPfl 

CONSTITUTION—  10  POINTS 

WOOL—  14  POINTS 

Condition,  bright,  strong,  clean  

TYi+ol                                                                                                     

100 

(Score  card  used  at  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture.) 


190 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


ft 


£8" 


o  > 

l 


a!^ 
<J  . 
'5.Q 


3 

a 


PQ 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION  191 

Shearing  the  Flock.— The  season  for  shearing  may  be  regarded  as  the 
flock  owner's  harvest  time.  Usually  this  time  is  about  April  1st  or  somewhat 
later.  The  condition  of  the  weather  and  opportunities  to  house  and  protect 
sheep  that  have  been  shorn,  from  cold,  determines  how  early  one  can  com- 
mence the  work  of  shearing.  Shearing  is  sometimes  delayed  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  weight  of  the  fleece  by  the  additional  amount  of  yolk  or  oil  that 
accumulates  faster  in  warm  weather  than  it  does  in  winter.  Everything 
considered,  this  practice  does  not  increase  the  profits  in  sheep  practice  and 
the  best  flock  owner's  aim  is  to  shear  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes  warm  to 
the  extent  that  sheep  begin  to  show  signs  of  being  uncomfortable,  and  one 
is  sure  that  the  weather  is  riot  going  to  be  changeable  and  unsuitable  for 
sheep  that  have  been  shorn.  Delaying  the  time  of  shearing  not  only  incurs 
discomfort  on  the  part  of  sheep,  but  results  in  more  or  less  loss  of  wool  that 
is  shed  about  the  legs  and  underside  of  the  body  or  that  becomes  soiled  to  the 
extent  that  it  is  unmarketable. 

The  earliest,  quickest  and  best  job  of  shearing  can  be  done  with  a 
shearing  machine  which  is  now  mostly  used.  Hand  or  power  machines  may 
be  secured  and  for  flocks  of  considerable  size  or  in  neighborhoods  where 
there  is  considerable  shearing  to  be  done  it  will  undoubtedly  pay  to  have 
a  power  machine. 

The  following  precautions  are  worthy  of  mention  in  shearing: 

Handle  the  sheep  as  quietly  and  gently  as  possible.  Struggling  is  espec- 
ially bad  for  pregnant  ewes  and  ewes  nursing  lambs. 

Keep  shears  or  'knives  sharp  and  run  them  as  closely  to  the  body  as 
possible.  More  wool  and  a  better  clip  for  manufacturing  purposes  is  thus 
secured. 

Avoid  cutting  the  sheep's  skin  by  keeping  the  skin  stretched  by  the  free 
hand  and  holding  the  cutter  flat  to  the  body. 

Particular  pains  should  be  taken  not  to  cut  off  the  end  of  the  teats  of 
ewes  or  the  end  of  the  vagina.  This  precaution  is  important  to  insure  ewes 
nursing  their  lambs  and  to  insure  their  breeding  successfully. 

Method  of  Shearing. — Where  the  machine  is  used  it  is  considered  the  best 
plan  to  shear  on  a  clean  floor.  The  sheep  can  be  kept  in  a  better  balanced 
position  and  turned  to  the  several  positions  that  enables  the  shearing  to  be 
most  quickly  and  easily  done  Shearing,  the  belly  and  inner  side  of  the  thighs, 
then  the  lower  side  of  the  neck,  the  left  side  of  the  head  and  finishing  with 
the  right  side,  is  one  of  the  common  methods  of  shearing  with  the  machine. 
One  should  develop  a  system  that  comes  most  natural  to  him  and  that  at 
the  same  time  accomplishes  the  work  in  the  quickest  time  and  with  as  little 
shifting  of  the  sheep  as  possible. 

Tying  the  Fleece. — The  fleece  should  be  kept  intact  and  not  torn  apart 
any  more  than  is  necessary  in  taking  it  off  the  sheep  and  tying  it.  Buyers 
prefer  to  have  wool  rolled  and  tied  neatly  although  wool  tying  boxes  are 
used  in  many  instances.  Only  twine  that  is  especially  prepared  for  tying 
wool  should  be  used  for  the  reason  that  the  use  of  other  twine  reduces  the 
value  of  the  wool  for  manufacturing  purposes  and  buyers  must  take  this  into 


192 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


II 

cj  K 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION  19U 

consideration  in  buying  a  clip  of  wool.  Wet  and  filthy  portions  of  the  fleece 
and  all  foreign  substances  must  be  separated  and  kept  out  of  the  fleece.  Buyers 
can  readily  judge  the  character  and  value  of  wool  and  appreciate  an  at- 
tractive clip  to  the  extent  that  they  will  pay  the  top  market  price  for  it.  Keeping 
sheep  away  from  straw  stacks  and  protecting  them  from  chaff  and  burrs  of  all 
kinds  add  much  to  the  value  of  the  clip  of  wool. 

Rams  for  the  Breeding  Flock.— A  vigorous,  pure  bred  ram  of  desirable 
type  should  be  selected  early  in  the  season  to  insure  no  delay  in  the  mating 
season.  He  should  not  be  over  fat,  but  in  good  condition.  For  a  month  prior 
to  and  during  the  mating  season,  he  should  be  grained  in  addition  to  being 
fed  the  best  of  hay  and  grass  pasture.  One-half  to  one  pound  of  grain  daily, 
like  oats,  bran  and  peas  with  perhaps  a  little  oil  meal,  should  keep  him  in 
good  condition.  Mangels,  sugar  beets  and  silage  should  not  be  fed. 

The  ram  to  be  used  for  service  should  be  a  year  and  a  half  old  at  least. 
It  is  very  undesirable  to  use  a  ram  lamb  and  if  necessity  demands  his  use, 
he  should  not  serve  more  than  8  to  12  ewes,  during  the  season.  An  older 
ram  can  be  expected  to  breed  fifty  to  fifty-five  ewes  successfully  during 
the  mating  season.  Where  the  rams  run  with  the  flock,  it  is  well  to  let 
them  run  only  for  the  night  or  for  a  few  hours  in  the  morning.  Painting 
the  breast  of  the  ram  enables  the  owner  to  know  what  ewes  are  bred  and  in 
pure  bred  flocks  it  is  well  to  know  the  dates  that  each  ewe  is  bred  in  order 
to  anticipate  the  date  that  she  will  lamb.  Where  two  or  more  rams  are 
employed  to  serve  a  flock  of  more  than  fifty-five  ewes,  each  ram  should 
be  given  a  flock.  After  there  has  been  an  opportunity  for  all  the  ewes  to 
have  been  bred,  rotating  the  rams  will  overcome  failure  on  the  part  of  any  one 
ram  and  insure  most  of  the  ewes  being  successfully  bred. 

Never  hesitate  to  get  the  best  rams  possible. 

Hand  coupling  is  not  always  practicable,  but  it  conserves  the  strength 
of  rams  and  is  practiced  by  many  of  the  best  shepherds. 

Allow  the  ram  plenty  of  exercise  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  ram  should  have  separate  quarters  from  the  ewe  flock  and  remain  in 
them  except  at  mating  time  to  avoid  his  worrying  the  ewes. 

Rearing  Lambs. — Little  lambs  are  very  dependent  upon  their  mother's 
and  the  shepherd's  care  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  their  lives.  During  this  time 
about  all  that  can  be  done  to  encourage  their  growth  is  to  keep  them  in  dry 
comfortable  quarters  and  see  that  they  are  properly  owned  and  nursed  by  their 
mothers. 

Lambs  that  are  not  owned  can  be  raised  by  hand  where  it  is  practicable  to 
do  so.  Oftentimes  it  is  possible  to  put  a  lamb  with  another  ewe  that  has  lost 
its  lamb.  Skinning  the  dead  lamb  and  putting  the  skin  on  the  lamb  that  is  to 
have  the  foster  mother,  is  one  means  employed  to  encourage  a  ewe  to  adopt  the 
strange  lamb. 

Where  lambs  are  raised  by  hand,  the  milk  of  a  fresh  cow  testing  high  in 
butter  fat  should  be  regularly  fed  and  in  very  small  quantities  (two  to  three 
tablespoonfuls),  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours  for  the  first  few  days. 
Gradually  increasing  the  amount  as  the  lamb  seems  to  thrive,  keeping  bottle  and 


194 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


O 

o 


co.S 

Uc     en 


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O   1> 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION 


195 


nipple  thoroughly  cleaned  and  the  milk  always  heated  at  92  degrees  F.  and  never 
scalded,  are  precautions  that  insure  success  in  hand  raising  the  lamb. 

The  Lamb  Creep. — As  soon  as  lambs  show  indications  of  eating  hay  and 
grain,  they  should  be  encouraged  to  do  so  by  having  a  separate  pen. in  one  cor- 
ner of  the  barn  or  a  convenient  place  in  the  field  which  they  can  enter  by  means 
of  the  lamb  creep.  This  is  made  by  constructing  and  setting  up  a  panel  consist- 
ing of  two  boards  six  inches  wide  to  which  slats  three  feet  long,  one  inch  thick 
and  four  inches  wide  are  nailed  far  enough  apart  to  permit  the  lambs  to  crawl 
through  and  not  the  ewes. 


Hampshire  Rams. 
By  Courtesy  of  Sherwood  Bros. 

Suitable  troughs  and  racks  for  grain  and  hay  enable  lambs  to  eat  and  make 
much  more  rapid  gains  than  they  otherwise  would.  Do  not  make  the  troughs  too 
deep  and  it  is  quite  necessary  to  have  a  board  fitted  above  the  trough  in  a 
manner  to  keep  the  lambs  from  getting  into  it  with  their  feet.  This  is  easily 
done  without  interfering  with  the  lambs  eating  at  any  time  they  may  choose  and 
saves  the  grain  which  they  will  not  eat  if  soiled  in  any  manner. 

A  Suitable  Grain  Mixture  for  Lambs. — Wheat  bran  four  parts;  whole 
oats  two  parts;  finely  ground  corn  meal  two  parts ( and  oil  meal  one  part,  is  a 
good  mixture.  In  warm  weather  reduce  the  corn  meal  and  increase  the  propor- 
tion of  oats.  A  fine  grade  of  second  cutting  of  clover  or  alfalfa  provides  the  best 
roughage.  Finely  chopped  roots  when  lambs  are  old  enough  to  eat  them  and 
until  lambs  are  put  on  pasture  will  be  helpful.  It  pays  well  to  feed  lambs  grain 
on  pasture  and  one  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  better  the  lambs  are  grown  the 
stronger  and  better  the  flock  will  be  for  breeding  as  well  as  for  mutton  purposes. 


196  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Marking  Lambs. — Every  owner  of  sheep  should  have  some  system  of 
marking  his  sheep  and  with  pure  bred  lambs  it  is  necessary  to  keep  records  of 
each  individual  for  proper  identification. 

The  Dana  Ear  Label  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  methods  of  keeping 
individuals  properly  identified  and  these  should  be  inserted  the  first  or  second 
day  to  insure  against  mistakes  and  to  do  the  work  most  conveniently. 

Castrating  and  Docking  Lambs. — With  the  exception  of  the  lambs  that 
are  to  be  retained  for  breeding  purposes,  all  buck  lambs  should  be  castrated. 
Buck  lambs  retained  for  breeding  purposes  must  be  separated  from  the  rest 


Docking  a  Lamb. 

of  the  flock  at  about  three  to  four  months  of  age,  and  given  special  care  and 
feed.  Allowing  lambs  to  run  uncastrated  with  the  flock  results  in  greater 
losses  than  perhaps  many  realize. 

Choosing  a  bright  day  when  lambs  are  one  to  two  weeks  old,  having  a  pen 
bedded  with  clean  straw  in  which  to  turn  lambs,  using  a  disinfectant  to  insure 
against  infection,  cutting  off  the  lower  third  of  the  bag,  drawing  the  testicles 
out  quickly  with  the  fingers  or  a  pair  of  pinchers,  and  applying  some  of  the 
disinfectant  to  the  wound,  accomplishes  the  act  of  castration  successfully  and 
without  danger  of  losses. 

All  lambs  should  be  docked.  It  is  best  to  dock  ram  lambs  five  to  seven 
days  after  they  have  been  castrated  for  the  reason  that  docking  and  castrating 
is  most  too  severe  a  shock  for  best  results.  Ewe  lambs  should  be  docked  at 
the  age  of  eight  to  fourteen  days. 

Loss  of  blood  is  the  principal  difficulty  in  docking  where  methods  of  cutting 
the  tail  off"  with  a  knife  or  a  chisel  are  employed.  This  is  overcome  by  the  use 
of  the  docking  iron  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut  and  which  burns  and  sears 
the  tail  off  in  a  manner  to  prevent  any  loss  of  blood.  The  shock  does  not  appear 
greater  than  that  from  other  methods. 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION  197 

Two  men  must  be  employed  to  dock  and  castrate  lambs.  With  proper  ar- 
rangements the  work  can  be  done  rapidly  and  under  no  circumstances  should  it 
be  neglected.  Docking  prevents  filth  and  infection  from  maggots,  saves  wool 
and  insures  the  safe  breeding  of  ewes  that  otherwise  will  not  be  likely  to  get 
with  lamb. 

Dipping  Ewes  and  Lambs. — Sheep  require  dipping  to  rid  them  of  ticks 
and  in  some  instances  of  lice  and  other  parasites.  After  the  ewes  have  been 
shorn,  the  ticks  resort  to  the  lambs.  Eight  to  ten  days  after  shearing  when  the 
weather  is  bright  and  sufficiently  warm,  the  entire  flock  should  be  dipped.  Many 
dip  oftener,  depending  upon  the  necessity.  Sheep  should  be  examined  for  ticks, 
especially  lambs  purchased  in  the  fall  for  feeding  and  dipped  whenever  neces- 
sary. Ticks  will  prevent  profitable  gains  in  spite  of  the  best  rations  and  feeding 
quality  of  lambs. 

Use  standard  sheep  dips  following  directions  submitted  with  them.  Avoid 
getting  the  dip  into  the  ears,  eyes  and  mouths  of  sheep  and  do  not  let  sheep  be- 
come chilled  by  remaining  out  nights  or  out  of  doors  day  times  should  the 
weather  change  and  become  cold. 

Weaning  Lambs. — It  is  best  to  wean  lambs  at  the  age  of  four  and  a  half 
to  five  months.  This  offers  the  ewes  a  chance  to  regain  strength  and  vitality 
when  the  breeding  season  comes  on  which  is  more  important  than  giving  the 
lambs  the  further  benefit  of  their  mother's  milk. 

Taking  the  lambs  away  from  the  ewes,  turning  them  into  a  good  pasture 
some  distance  removed  from  their  mothers  and  not  allowing  them  to  go  back 
again,  is  the  best  plan  to  follow  in  weaning.  There  is  a  less  prolonged  worry  on 
the  part  of  lambs  and  their  mothers  which  is  accompanied  by  better  gains  to 
both  lambs  and  ewes. 

Use  of  Rape. — Good  pasture  at  weaning  time  and  later  in  the  fall  when 
ewes  and  lambs  make  good  use  of  green  feed  cannot  be  assured  and  it  is  there- 
fore, a  good  practice  to  have  a  piece  of  rape  on  which  lambs  can  be  turned  a 
part  of  each  day  or  run  regularly  when  they  have  become  accustomed  to  it 

Bloat  in  Sheep. — When  turned  on  new  pasture,  sheep  are  very  subject  to 
bloat  and  should  be -watched  carefully.  Green  clover,  alfalfa,  and  rape  when 
wet  at  a  more  mature  stage,  are  especially  dangerous  and  should  be  pastured  cau- 
tiously. Sweet,  warm  milk  is  an  effective  remedy  for  bloat.  One-half  pint  given 
with  a  drenching  bottle  brings  immediate  relief  if  the  sheep  or  lamb  is  not  too 
far  gone  to  survive  from  any  ordinary  treatment.  Tapping  may  be  resorted 
to  when  other  methods  fail,  but  should  be  the  last  thing  to  do  to  treat  sheep 
for  bloat. 

Marketing  Lambs. — The  market  for  lambs  is  active  from  late  summer 
until  late  spring  and  should  be  studied  by  one  having  lambs  to  offer.  There  are 
times  when  there  is  *a  scarcity  of  lambs  on  the  market  and  one  having  lambs  in 
good  condition  may  find  these  times  the  best  to  market. 

Lambs  born  in  the  early  spring  can  be  made  to  reach  80  pounds  in  weight 
in  late  summer.  This  is  a  most  desirable  weight  for  the  market  providing  the 
lamb  is  fat  and  is  in  a  good  place  to  sell  at  this  time  to  avoid  the  rush  of  many 
lambs  that  are  put  into  the  market  a  little  later. 


198  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Lambs  that  are  put  onto  the  market  in  the  fall  sell  mostly  for  feeders  and 
at  feeder  prices  and  the  producer  must  keep  in  mind  the  matter  of  feeding  lib- 
erally if  he  hopes  to  realize  the  best  prices  at  this  season.  Grass  fed  lambs  are 
usually  all  sold  by  the  middle  of  December  and  if  a  system  of  feeding  can  be 
adopted  to  have  choice  lambs  ready  between  this  time  and  the  middle  of  Janu- 
ary when  the  winter  fed  lambs  begin  to  arrive  on  the  market,  one  can  secure 
good  prices. 

Late  fed  lambs  that  are  ready  for  the  market  in  April  or  possibly  a  little 
earlier  when  most  of  the  winter  fed  lambs  have  been  marketed,  have  little  com- 
petition and  may  sell  well,  although  the  number  of  lambs  that  have  been  mar- 
keted previously  and  the  demand,  determine  the  kind  of  a  price  one  will 
secure. 

It  is  a  safe  rule  to  market  lambs  when  they  are  fat  and  at  the  most  de- 
sirable weight,  providing  the  market  is  normal.  Avoid  putting  "half  fed"  stuff 
on  the  market  and  being  obliged  to  accept  low  prices  paid  for  it. 

The  man  having  one  or  more  carloads  can  always  sell  to  a  better  advantage 
than  the  man  with  a  smaller  lot.  This  is  true  providing  he  can  make  up  a  load 
of  uniform  stuff  which  should  always  be  done  to  the  fullest  extent  possible.  A 
more  uniform  appearance  may  be  secured  by  clipping  loose  wool  and  tagging  just 
a  little  about  the  tail.  Expert  buyers  do  not  buy  on  appearance,  but  a  favorable 
impression  tends  to  make  them  more  liberal  and  well  marketed  loads  are  an  in- 
spiration to  the  seller. 

Lambs  that  are  shipped  should  not  be  stuffed  prior  to  shipping.  Dry  feed 
and  a  somewhat  reduced  amount  enable  them  to  reach  the  market  in  the  best 
condition.  Do  not  crowd  the  cars,  but  watch  the  lambs  during  shipment  to  avoid 
their  piling  up  at  one  end  of  the  car  and  becoming  smothered. 

Fattening  Sheep. — Feeding  and  fattening  sheep  that  have  simply  been 
grown  and  not  fed  grain  to  any  extent  on  pasture,  has  always  been  an  important 
branch  of  the  sheep  industry.  Men  who  thoroughly  learn  the  business  maintain 
feeding  stations  where  large  numbers  of  lambs  are  purchased  in  the  fall  and  feti 
during  the  winter.  The  margin  between  purchase  and  selling  price  and  the 
gains  in  weight,  are  the  source  of  profit  in  the  business.  Farmers  who  raise 
their  own  lambs  or  buy  on  the  markets  and  men  who  have  access  to  suitable 
sheds  at  convenient  shipping  points  and  near  factories  that  supply  refuse  like 
beet  pulp,  pea  vine  silage  and  other  refuse  possessing  feeding  value,  engage  in 
this  line  of  industry. 

The  Feeding  Period. — Early  spring  lambs  if  not  fattened  on  grass  pas- 
ture can  be  fattened  in  the  fall  and  marketed  in  December  or  January  and  in 
some  instances  earlier.  Later  lambs  are  fed  twelve  to  fourteen  weeks,  depend- 
ing upon  their  condition,  and  marketed  in  March  or  April.  A  feeding  period 
of  100  days  should  secure  a  gain  of  20  Jo  30  pounds  per  head  and  a  suitable 
condition  for  the  market.  The  market  should  be  studied  and  the  most  suitable 
weights,  approximately  80  pounds,  provided.  , 

Rations  Suitable  for  Fattening1. — Light,  low  grade  and  heavyweight 
screenings  with  clover  or  alfalfa,  provide  rations  on  which  thousands  of  sheep 


SHEEP   PRODUCTION  199 

are  fed  in  the  vicinity  of  large  grain  elevators.  Low  grade  screenings  may  be 
used  in  starting  lambs  on  feed,  but  the  heavy  weight  grades  are  necessary  for 
finishing  and  are  approximately  one-third  better  than  the  low  grade.  Approxi- 
mately one  pound  of  screenings  and  two  pounds  of  legume  hay  provide  a  suita- 
ble fattening  ration  when  sheep  or  lambs  have  been  worked  onto  full  feed. 

Under  careful  management,  silage  from  corn,  pea  vines,  cannery  refuse  and 
beet  pulp  fed  at  the  rate  of  three  to  three  and  one-half  pounds  daily  with  one 
and  one-half  pounds  or  more  of  grain  and  a  small  amount  of  hay,  provides  a 
suitable  ration. 

Corn,  barley  and  a  combination  of  other  concentrates  that  sheep  will  relish 
and  that  are  reasonable  in  cost,  fed  in  combination  with  hay,  both  fed  in  quanti- 
ties that  sheep  will  eat  without  waste  and  remain  on  feed  constantly,  provide 
suitable  rations. 

Helpful  Suggestions. — Secure  all  the  information  possible  that  will  be 
helpful  in  buying,  feeding  and  selling  intelligently. 

Have  pens  arranged  in  a  manner  to  do  feeding  conveniently  and  without 
disturbing  the  sheep  any  more  than  is  necessary.  Regularity  and  quietness  are 
highly  important  factors. 

Bring  sheep  onto  full  feed  and  make  any  necessary  changes  in  the  ration 
gradually.  Provide  pure,  fresh  water  and  keep  salt  constantly  before  them. 
Do  not  allow  feeding  troughs  to  become  filthy. 

Sheep  eat  and  take  on  gains  best  in  clear,  cold  weather.  To  avoid  getting 
them  off  feed  reduce  the  amount  of  feed  on  days  that  are  warm,  wet  or  lowery. 
Never  feed  more  than  sheep  clean  up  readily. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  fatten  sheep  infested  with  ticks,  lice  or  scab. 
They  should  be  dipped  before  the  feeding  period  begins. 

Fresh  air  in  abundance  is  necessary.  Plenty  of  shed  room  should  be  pro- 
vided to  shelter  sheep  from  storms.  Exercise  is  not  conducive  to  the  largest  gains 
and  sheep  feeding  pens  are  usually  provided  with  only  small  yards. 

Lambs  fed  until  late  in  the  year  may  be  shorn  to  good  advantage  six  weeks 
before  they  are  ready  for  market. 

Be  sure  to  barricade  pens  and  yards  to  prevent  dogs  getting  into  them. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP 

GENERAL  SYMPTOMS 

Appetite  depraved;  poor  in  flesh;  debilitated;  craving  dirt  and  litter;  diarrhea 
sets  in. — Stomach  Worms,  Page  211. 

Bloated,  distended  abdomen. — Bloat,  Page  203. 

Bloating ;  refusal  to  eat ;  general  uneasiness. — Colic,  'Page  204. 

Bowels  loose;  cough  husky  and  dry;  some  fever;  coughing  up  worms;  poor 
appetite;  difficult  bieathing. — Bronchitis,  Page  203. 

Bowels  tight ;'  passing  of  hard,  dry  manure. — Constipation,  Page  205. 

Breathing  difficult ;  skin  papery ;  coughing  and  strangling  fits ;  poor  in  flesh ; 
often  coughing  up  worms. — Lung  Worms,  'Page  208. 

Breathing  difficult ;  worms  coughed  up ;  bowels  loose ;  husky  dry  cough ;  some 
fever ;  poor  appetite. — Bronchitis,  Page  203. 

Chill  followed  by  fever ;  great  thirst ;  cough ;  panting  and  heaving  at  the 
flanks. — Pneumonia,  Page  209. 

Cough  husky  and  dry ;  some  fever ;  poor  appetite ;  loose  bowels ;  coughing  up 
worms ;  difficult  breathing. — Bronchitis,  Page  203. 

Coughing  and  strangling  fits ;  loss  of  flesh ;  often  coughing  up  worms ;  breath- 
ing difficult ;  skin  papery. — Lung  Worms,  Page  208. 

Coughing;  great  thirst;  chill  followed  by  fever;  panting  and  heaving  at  the 
flanks. — Pneumonia,  Page  209. 

Delirium;  weakness;  muscles  tremble;  gait  staggering;  swellings  on  body 
full  of  bloody  fluid  which  oozes  through  the  skin ;  some  cases  dying  with- 
out warning. — Anthrax,  Page  203. 

Diarrhea  following  a  dibilitated  condition ;  a  poorness  of  flesh  and  a  craving 
for  dirt  and  litter. — Stomach  Worms,  Page  211. 

Discharge  from  nostrils;  head  held  low;  sometimes  difficult  breathing. — 
Nasal  Gleet,  Page  208. 

Discharge  of  watery  nature  from  eyes  and  nostrils;  sneezing;  depression; 
poor  appetite. — Catarrh,  Page  204. 

Discharge  with  a  foul  smell;  swollen,  tender,  hot  feet;  lameness;  in  severe 
cases  sheep  cannot  walk. — Foot  Rot,  Page  207. 

Dull,  yellow  eyes;  general  debility;  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh;  wool  rough. 
— Nodular  Disease,  Page  209. 

Dying  suddenly  without  warning;  high  fever  followed  by  delirium;  weak- 
ness ;  muscles  tremble ;  gait  staggering ;  swellings  on  body  full  of  bloody 
fluid  which  oozes  through  the  skin. — Anthrax,  Page  203. 

Eating  dirt  and  litter ;  poor  in  flesh ;  depraved  appetite ;  debilitated ;  diarrhea 
sets  in. — Stomach  Worms,  Page  211. 

Eating ;  refusal  to  eat ;  some  bloating ;  general  uneasiness. — Colic,  Page  204. 

Eyes  and  nostrils  have  watery  discharge;  sneezing;  depression;  poor  appe- 
tite.—Catarrh,  Page  204. 

200 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  201 

Eyes  dull  and   yellow;   general   debility;  loss  of  appetite   and   flesh;   wool 

rough. — Nodular  Disease,  Page  209. 
Eyes  full  of  tears;  eyes  kept  partly  closed;  animal  avoids  the  light;  parts 

streaked  with  red. — Inflammation  of  the  Eyes,  Page  208. 
Eyes  kept  partly  closed ;  full  of  tears ;  sheep  avoids  light ;  parts  streaked  with 

red. — Inflammation  of  the  Eyes,  Page  208. 
Feet  tender;  hot,  swollen;  lameness;  foul  discharge;  in  severe  cases  sheep 

cannot  walk.— Foot  Rot,  Page  207. 
Fever;  husky,  dry  cough;  poor  appetite;  loose  bowels;  coughing  up  worms; 

suffocating  breathing. — Bronchitis,  Page  203. 
Flesh  poor;  dull,  yellow  eyes;  general  debility;  loss  of  appetite;  wool  rough. 

—Nodular  Disease,  Page  209. 
Head  held  low;  sometimes  difficult  breathing;  discharge  from  nostrils. — Nasal 

Gleet,  Page  208. 
Heaving  and  panting  at  the  flanks;  coughing;  great  thirst;  chill  followed  by 

fever. — Pneumonia,  Page  209. 
Inflamed  eyes ;  eyes  kept  partly  closed ;  full  of  tears ;  streaked  with  red ;  sheep 

avoids  light. — Inflammation  of  the  Eyes,  Page  208. 
Itching  severe ;  great  uneasiness. — Scab,  Page  211. 
Lameness  in  one  or  more  feet ;  parts  hot,  tender,  swollen ;  foul  discharge ;  in 

severe  cases  sheep  cannot  walk. — Foot  Rot,  Page  207. 
Maggots. — Maggots  from  Blow  Flies,  Page  209. 
Manure  dry  and  hard ;  bowels  tight. — Constipation,  Page  205. 
Manure  thin  and  watery. — Diarrhea,  "Page  206. 
Muscles  tremble;  fever  followed  by  delirium;  weakness;  gait  staggering; 

swellings  on  body  full  of  bloody  fluid  which  oozes  through  the  skin;  in 

some  cases  dying  without  warning. — Anthrax,  Page  203. 

Nostrils  and  eyes  have  a  watery  discharge;  sneezing;  depression;  poor  appe- 
tite.— Catarrh,  Page  204. 
Nostrils  have  some  discharge ;  head  held  low ;  sometimes  difficult  breathing. 

—Nasal  Gleet,  Page  208. 
Panting  and  heaving  at  the  flanks;  coughing;  great  thirst;  chill  followed  by 

fever. — Pneumonia,  Page  209. 
Poor  in  flesh ;  debilitated ;  depraved  appetite ;  craving  dirt  and  litter ;  diarrhea 

sets  in. — Stomach  Worms,  Page  211. 
Poor  in  flesh ;  violent  coughing  and  strangling  fits ;  often  coughing  up  worms ; 

breathing  difficult ;  skin  papery. — Lung  Worms,  Page  208. 
Skin  papery ;  breathing  difficult ;  coughing  and  strangling  fits ;  often  coughing 

up  worms ;  poor  in  flesh ;  breathing  difficult. — Lung  Worms,  Page  208. 
Sneezing;  watery  discharge  from  nostrils  and  eyes;  depression;  poor  appetite. 

—Catarrh,  Page  204. 

Strangling  and  coughing  fits ;  poor  in  flesh ;  often  coughing  up  worms ;  breath- 
ing difficult ;  skin  papery. — Lung  Worms,   Page  208. 
Tears  run  from  eyes;  animal  keeps  eyes  partly  closed  and  avoids  the  light; 

parts  are  streaked  with  red. — Inflammation  of  the  Eyes,  Page  208. 


202  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Thirst  abnormal ;  chill  followed  by  fever ;  cough ;  panting  and  heaving  at  the 
flanks. — Pneumonia,  Page  209. 

Thirst  abnormal ;  wool  rough ;  general  debility ;  poor  appetite ;  constipation 
or  diarrhea;  manure  full  of  worms'  eggs  if  examined  through  a  micro- 
scope.— Fluke  Worms,  Page  207. 

Trembling  of  muscles ;  fever  followed  by  delirium ;  weakness ;  gait  stagger- 
ing; swellings  on  body  full  of  bloody  pus  which  oozes  through  the  skin; 
sometimes  dying  suddenly. — Anthrax,  Page  203. 

Uneasiness ;  refusal  to  eat ;  bloating. — Colic,  Page  204. 

Watery  discharge  from  nostrils  and  eyes;  sneezing;  depression;  poor  appe- 
tite.—Catarrh,  Page  204. 

Weakness;  trembling  of  muscles  ;  fever  followed  by  delirium;  gait  staggering; 
swellings  on  body  full  of  bloody  pus  which  oozes  through  the  skin ; 
dying  suddenly  in  some  cases. — Anthrax,  Page  203. 

Wool  rough ;  general  debility ;  poor  appetite ;  great  thirst ;  diarrhea  or  con- 
stipation ;  manure  full  of  worms'  eggs  if  examined  through  a  microscope. 
—Fluke  Worms,  Page  207. 

Wool  rough ;  loss  of  flesh  and  appetite ;  dull,  yellow  eyes ;  general  debility. — 
Nodular  Disease,  Page  209. 

Worms  coughed  up;  bowels  loose;  husky,  dry  cough;  some  fever;  poor  appe- 
tite ;  difficult  breathing. — Bronchitis,  Page  203. 

Worms  coughed  up ;  breathing  difficult ;  skin  papery  ;  coughing  and  strangling 
fits;  poor  in  flesh. — Lung  Worms,  Page  208. 

Yellow,  dull  eyes ;  general  debility ;  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh ;  wooi  rough. — 
Nodular  Disease,  Page  209. 


TREATMENT  FOR  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP    . 

Anthrax. 

This  is  a  malignant,  infectious  disease  to  which  all  domestic  animals  are 
subject.  Man  himself  can  be  infected  from  animals.  It  is  more  common  in 
parts  of  the  West  and  South.  There  are  great  losses  in  cattle,  sheep,  and 
mules.  Anthrax  is  caused  by  a  slender  rod-shaped  germ  and  is  likely  to 
occur  near  tanneries,  the  hides  being  infected,  or  in  localities  where  the  disease 
has  existed  before.  It  is  sometimes  contracted  by  man  from  infected  wool. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  vary.  Sometimes  the  animal  appears  well 
and  dies  suddenly  with  little  or  no  warning.  In  other  cases  there  is  a  more 
gradual  development  of  the  disease,  showing  high  fever  which  may  later  de- 
velop delirium.  The  animal  shows  great  weakness,  the  muscles  tremble  and 
the  walk  is  staggering.  There  are  often  swellings  on  the  body  filled  with  a 
bloody  fluid  which  oozes  through  the  skin. 

Treatment. — Great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the 
disease.  A  vaccine  has  been  discovered  which  is  very  effective.  It  can  be 
purchased  on  the  market.  Medical  treatment  is  of  little  value ;  however  it  is 
well  to  isolate  the  animal  until  sure  of  the  nature  of  the  disease.  Change 
food  and  water  and  use  disinfectants  freely  such  as  coal  tar  preparations.  A 
dead  animal  should  be  buried  deeply  in  lime.  Be  careful  not  to  get  any  blood 
into  a  scratch  on  the  hand  or  body.  A  report  should  be  made  to  the  State 
Veterinarian. 

Bloat. 

The  cause  is  fermentation  of  food  which  causes  gas  to  generate,  swells 
the  intestines  and  develops  much  pain. 

Symptoms. — The  most  noticeable  symptom  is  the  bloated  and  distended 
appearance  of  the  abdomen  the  most  prominent  part  of  which  is  the  place  to 
tap. 

Treatment. — Burn  a  slender  knife  blade  in  a  fire  to  sterlize  it  and  then 
use  it  after  clipping  the  wool.  Give  one-half  pint  cow-warm  milk ;  repeat  after 
thirty  minutes  if  needed.  Recommended  by  Frank  Kleinheim,  herd  shepherd 
at  University  Farm,  Madison,  Wis.  Mr.  Kleinheim  says  he  has  lost  but  one 
sheep  with  bloat  in  thirty-five  years  since  using  this  remedy.  This  is  an  easy 
and  safe  remedy. 

Bronchitis. 

This  is  an  irritation  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  affecting  both  lambs  and  young 
calves.  It  develops  from  wrong  treatment  while  sick,  or  from  eating  decayed 
food.  Eggs  or  flies  are  laid  on  the  food  and  hatch  into  long  worms  which 
distribute  themselves  through  the  bronchial  tubes. 

Symptoms.— There  is  some  fever ;  a  cough ;  poor  feeding  and  looseness  in 

203 


204  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

bowels;  worms  come  out;  the  coat  is  dry,  and  there  is  trouble  in  breathing. 

Treatment. — Isolate  the  sheep ;  give  plenty  of  vegetables,  grass  and  grain. 
The  usual  remedy  and  most  widely  used  is  turpentine  poured  into  the  feed 
or  water.  One  small  teaspoonful  can  be  safely  used.  Linseed  or  castor  oil 
will  also  be  found  good.  Feed  a  few  raw  potato  parings  once  in  awhile. 
Drench  the  sheep  properly.  Coal  tar  in  hot  water  makes  a  good  solution  in 
which  to  soak  a  bag  to  put  over  the  head  for  inhaling.  Vinegar  is  good  too. 
Be  careful  not  to  strangle  the  animal. 

Castration. — This  consists  in  removing  the  reproductive  organs  of  the 
males.  Lambs  are  castrated  when  about  six  days  old.  If  possible  have 
someone  hold  the  lamb  for  you.  Cut  off  quite  a  share  of  the  lower  portion  of 
the  pouch,  pull  out  the  testicle  and  cut  off  the  cord.  Apply  a  carbolic  acid 
solution  (1  teaspoonful  to  a  cup  of  water)  to  the  parts  and  be  sure  the  instru- 
ments used  are  free  from  germs  and  that  the  hands  are  clean.  An  old  ram 
may  bleed  to  death  in  a  short  time  after  being  castrated  unless  the  cord  is 
tied.  Catgut,  silk  or  linen  thread  may  be  used  for  this  and  the  thread  left  on 
for  several  days.  After  castrating  dress  the  wound  at  least  once  a  day  and 
dip  the  instruments  in  an  antiseptic  solution  before  using  them  again. 

Catarrh — Influenza. 

Catarrh  is  really  a  cold  in  the  head  which  is  chronic  and  is  brought  on 
by  catching  cold.  It  may  be  passed  from  one  animal  to  another.  It  usually 
affects  the  membranes  of  the  breathing  organs.  Animals  are  usually  con- 
stipated. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  eyes; 
sneezing;  depression  and  loss  of  appetite.  The  discharge  may  become  like 
pus. 

Treatment. — Remove  to  comfortable  quarters.  Prepare  the  following 
drench:  Pour  one  quart  of  boiling  water  over  two  ounces  of  composition 
powder;  let  it  stand  one  hour  in  a  warm  place ;  pour  off  the  clear  liquid  and  add 
two  ounces  of  sugar  of  milk.  Give  a  wineglassfull  once  or  twice  a  day. 
Keep  the  bowels  open  by  feeding  vegetables,  like  carrots,  potatoes  and  turnips. 
An  onion  once  in  a  while  has  been  found  good  by  many  farmers.  Epsom  salts 
in  four  to  six  ounce  doses  will  cure  influenza  when  taken  early.  Give  one 
dose  and  repeat  if  necessary.  Use  all  the  boric  acid  a  pint  of  warm  water 
will  dissolve  and  inject  while  warm  into  the  nostril  and  throat. 

Colic — Stretches. 

Running  in  a  pasture  during  a  cold  windy  day  as  well  as  eating  in- 
digestible food,  frozen  vegetables  and  exposure  cause  colic. 

Symptoms. — General  uneasiness,  refusal  to  eat  and  more  or  less  bloating 
with  some  rolling  and  indications  of  pain  show  colic. 

Treatment. — If  the  bowels  are  constipated  give  four  or  five  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts.  Hot  water  with  a  little  camphor  or  camphor  gum  added  is  good. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP— TREATMENT 


205 


Give  one  teaspoonful  each  of  ginger  and  baking  soda.  Dissolve  in  water  and 
give  as  a  drench.  Do  not  hold  the  head  high  in  drenching  as  there  is  danger 
of  strangling.  A  teaspoonful  of  peppermint  in  a  cup  of  water  as  a  drench  has 
been  recommended  by  many  sheep  raisers. 


Drenching  the  Sheep. 

Precaution  should  be  taken  in  drenching  the  sheep 
in  order  to  avoid  choking.     Note  size   and   shape  of 
bottle  and  how  sheep  is  held  in  a  manner  to  allow  H 
swallow  naturally.         _  , 

Constipation  in  Lambs  or  Sheep. 

An  injury  to  the  bag  may  make  it  necessary  to  take  the  milk  from  it. 
When  this  is  done  there  is  considerable  effect  on  the  unborn  lambs  and  they 
are  predisposed  to  constipation.  Proper  feed  and  care  will  do  a  lot  toward 


206  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

regulating  the  bowels  in  the  new  born  lambs.  A  little  sugar  in  milk  and  water 
has  been  given  with  good  results. 

Treatment. — -In  lambs  empty  the  lower  bowel  by  the  injection  of  warm 
soapy  water  and  give  a  laxative  diet  or  take  a  small  pointed  piece  of  pure 
white  soap  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long  and  after  dipping  it  in  sweet  oil,  in- 
sert in  the  rectum,  pushing  it  well  in.  Give  one  teaspoonful  of  sweet  oil  once 
or  twice  a  day. 

The  same  treatment  may  be  given  sheep  in  increased  quantities. 

Diarrhea. 

This  is  usually  the  result  of  mismanagement  and  neglect ;  the  feeding  of 
indigestible  food ;  sudden  changes  of  diet,  and  exposure.  In  lambs  infection 
from  the  udder  and  chilling  are  common  causes. 

Treatment. — Diarrhea  should  not  be  checked  suddenly  as  it  is  an  effort  of 
nature  to  rid  itself  of  irritants.  Give  a  change  of  feed  and  pure  drinking  water. 
If  the  case  is  obstinate  try  any  good  home  remedy  for  diarrhea.  Jamaica 
ginger  following  cotton  seed  oil  or  an  ounce  of  linseed  oil  will  give  good  re- 
sults. A  small  lamb  may  be  given  one  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil  with  good 
results.  This  is  both  healing  and  cleansing.  For  a  sheep  the  dose  may  be 
increased  to  one-half  teacupful.  One  dose  will  probably  be  sufficient.  Milk 
in  which  black  pepper  is  mixed  is  good  for  diarrhea. 

Docking. 

In  the  younger  lambs  the  pain  is  not  great  especially  if  cut  at  a  joint. 
If  the  skin  is  drawn  tight  from  the  tip  of  the  tail  after  cutting  it  will  leave 
an  overhanging  section  of  skin  that  can  be  tied  with  a  cord.  Kerosene 
oil  or  turpentine  applied  to  the  wound  will  help  it  heal  rapidly.  Lard  or  eggs 
can  be  used  as  healing  applications. 

Dysentery — Bloody  Flux. 

This  disease  is  usually  the  result  of  obstinate  and  neglected  diarrhea,  or 
eating  improper  food  and  having  continued  indigestion.  It  is  nature's  method 
of  attempting  to  throw  off  some  irritating  material  in  the  bowels. 

Symptoms. — There  is  fever;  extreme  debility;  rumbling  of  the  bowels; 
thin  discharge  mixed  with  mucus  and  sometimes  streaked  with  blood,  and  more 
or  less  pain. 

Treatment. — Place  the  animal  in  comfortable  quarters;  give  light  nu- 
tritious diet  such  as  gruels  and  mashes  for  a  day  or  two.  Flour  and  water 
or  milk  in  a  paste  form  gives  very  good  results.  A  teaspoonful  of  Jamaica 
ginger  acts  well  as  a  stimulant.  Give  two  or  three  ounces  of  castor  oil  to 
heal  and  cleanse  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  follow  up  with  tonics  and  a 
laxative  diet. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP— TREATMENT  207 

Fluke  Worms. 

All  sheep  are  subject  to  liver  flukes  which  cause  the  so-called  liver  rot 
They  are  small  flat  worms  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  long,  and  multiply 
very  rapidly  where  there  is  stagnant  water ;  they  make  their  way  to  the  livei 
and  there  develop. 

Symptoms.— General  debility;  the  wool  is  rough;  the  appetite  gone; 
and  there  is  abnormal  thirst.  There  may  be  diarrhea,  or  the  bowels  may  be 
constipated.  If  the  discharges  are  examined  with  a  microscope  they  will  be 
found  to  contain  many  of  the  eggs.  Swellings  appear  on  parts  of  the  body. 

Treatment. — The  best  treatment  is  to  prevent  the  disease  by  removing 
the  animals  to  high  and  dry  pastures;  see  that  the  drinking  water  is  pure. 
Medicines,  except  tonics,  are  of  little  value  in  this  disease.  Give  plenty  of 
nutritious  food,  and  feed  plenty  of  rock  salt  and  lump  sulphur.  Charcoal 
may  be  given  mixed  with  a  little  ginger. 

Foot  Rot. 

Foot  rot  is  an  inflammation  of  the  horny  structure  of  the  foot  and  skin 
connections.  Exposure  in  wet  pastures ;  general  debility ;  contagion,  and 
filthy  surroundings  usually  develop  it. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  is  observed  to  limp.  Sometimes  the  whole  four 
feet  are  affected.  The  parts  are  hot,  swollen  and  tender;  there  will  be  a 
foul  discharge  of  fluid  and  the  animal  will  soon  be  unable  to  walk;  death 
may  ensue. 

Treatment. — The  animal  should  be  isolated;  the  treatment  must  be 
immediate  and  thorough.  Ascertain  the  cause  if  possible  and  remove  it. 
In  mild  cases  a  little  tar  rubbed  on  will  be  effective.  If  the  disease  has  reached 
a  putrid  type,  clean  the  foot  by  washing,  or  turn  the  animals  into  wet  grass; 
remove  all  loose  or  superfluous  horn.  Then  wash  the  parts  with  a  solution  made 
by  mixing  four  ounces  pyroligneous  acid  with  three  ounces  of  water.  Saturate 
a  piece  of  cotton  with  this  solution  and  apply,  changing  when  necessary.  If 
a  number  of  animals  are  to  be  treated  it  can  be  accomplished  more  rapidly  by 
standing  them  for  a  short  time  in  a  wooden  trough,  which  contains  one  inch 
depth  of  the  following  solution:  Linseed  oil,  two  pints;  pyroligneous  acid, 
four  pints ;  kerosene  ,  one  pint.  Any  amount  can  be  made  in  the  above  propor- 
tions. Improve  the  general  condition  with  the  following  tonic:  one  ounce 
each;  powdered  sassafras,  charcoal  and  golden  seal,  one-half  ounce  sulphur, 
two  drams  powdered  asafetida,  two  pounds  flaxseed.  Mix  and  give  a  table- 
spoonful  twice  a  day  in  the  feed. 

After  cleaning  the  foot  carefully  saturate  the  affected  parts  with  turpen- 
tine, then  apply  butter  of  Antimony;  bandage  the  parts  and  stand  on  clean, 
hard  floors.  This  treatment  has  done  much  to  relieve  communities  of  this 
disease,  especially  in  low,  swampy  country.  Kerosene  oil  is  fine  for  sheep  with 
foot  rot  to  walk  through. 


208  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Grubs  in  the  Head  or  Nasal  Gleet. 

This  is  a  troublesome  pest  causing  discomfort  and  injury  to  sheep.  Grubs 
in  the  nostrils  are  caused  by  a  small  gad-fly  which  deposits  her  eggs  in  the 
nostrils  of  the  sheep.  In  a  few  days  the  eggs  are  hatched  and  the  young  larvae 
passes  up  the  nostrils  into  the  nasal  cavities,  where  they  develop,  causing  the 
sheep  much  pain  and  annoyance.  The  irritation  causes  the  greatest  loss.  As 
a  disease  it  is  not  fatal. 

Symptoms. — There  is  irritation  of  the  nose  with  some  discharge.  The 
sheep  holds  its  head  low ;  sometimes  there  is  difficulty  in  breathing. 

Treatment. — The  best  treatment  is  prevention.  Smear  the  noses  of  the 
sheep  with  common  tar,  put  the  sheep  in  a  dusty  lane  or  open  field  where  they 
can  thrust  their  noses  into  the  dust.  This  to  be  done  during  the  hot  summer 
months  when  the  gad-fly  bothers  the  sheep  most.  Imagine  how  the  sheep  must 
feel  bothered  with  these  worms  and  you  will  aid  in  preventing  them  from  get- 
ting into  the  head.  Sulphur  can  be  burned  so  it  may  be  inhaled,  or  a  spray  of 
turpentine  and  kerosene  oil  will  be  found  very  good  for  removing  and  killing 
the  little  eggs  and  maggots.  A  paste  of  pitch  pine  applied  on  the  nostrils  will 
be  found  satisfactory.  Salt  saturated  with  tar  is  used  by  many  farmers.  It 
is  placed  in  troughs  where  the  sheep  can  get  at  it. 

Inflammation  of  the  Eyes. 

This  trouble  affects  the  lining  membranes  of  the  eyelids  and  eyeball  and 
is  caused  by  sand  or  little  sticks  getting  into  the  eye. 

Symptoms. — Tears  run  from  the  eyes  which  the  animal  keeps  partly  closed 
and  avoids  the  light.  The  eyelids  and  eyeballs  are  streaked  with  red  and 
there  is  pain. 

Treatment. — Bathe  the  eyes  with  hot  or  cold  water  twenty  minutes  at  a 
time  three  or  four  times  a  day.  Separate  the  animal  from  the  flock.  Salt 
water  is  one  of  the  best  and  simplest  remedies.  A  poultice  of  bread  crumbs 
and  mashed  potatoes  has  proven  good  in  many  instances.  Boracic  acid  is  the 
usual  drug  store  remedy  and  is  fine  as  a  cleanser.  It  should  be  dissolved  in 
water. 

Lung  Worms. 

In  the  lungs  of  sheep  a  thread-like  worm  is  found  which  causes  coughing, 
sneezing  and  a  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  nose.  The  same  worm  infects 
pigs  and  calves. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  falling  away  in  flesh ;  also  violent  fits  of  cough- 
ing and  strangling,  often  raising  mucus  which  contains  the  worms.  Usually 
the  breathing  is  difficult  and  the  skin  becomes  exceedingly  papery. 

Treatment. — The  best  preventive  treatment  is  a  frequent  rotation  of 
pastures,  thus  preventing  any  pasture  from  becoming  greatly  infested.  Isolate 
the  sick  sheep  and  give  nourishing,  easily  digested  food.  Inject  into  the  wind- 
pipe a  mixture  of  one  part  turpentine  in  two  parts  olive  oil,  once  a  day  for 
three  days,  using  the  hypodermic  syringe.  Or  use  one-half  ounce  carbolic  acid, 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP— TREATMENT  209 

four  ounces  turpentine  and  eight  ounces  olive  oil ;  mix  well  and  inject  into  the 
windpipe  by  means  of  a  hypodermic  syringe  once  a  day  for  three  days.  Place 
the  animal  on  his  rump  and  hold  between  the  knees  while  inserting  the  hypo- 
dermic needle  into  the  windpipe  two  or  three  inches  below  the  throat,  in- 
jecting the  medicine  gradually. 

Maggots  From  Blow  Flies. 

Most  of  the  maggots  on  animals  are  caused  by  the  flesh-fly.  The  adult 
fly  deposits  her  eggs  (larvae)  on  the  surface  of  wounds  or  in  the  wool  of 
sheep  where  manure  and  other  filth  has  collected.  The  larvae,  as  they  de- 
velop, will  work  their  way  into  the  skin,  causing  sores.  When  the  tails  of 
lambs  are  docked,  the  cut  surface  must  be  treated  with  a  proper  antiseptic  and 
the  lamb  watched  to  guard  against  the  fly. 

Treatment. — The  essential  treatment  is  cleanliness.  Heavy  wooled  sheep 
should  have  all  wool  cut  away  from  parts  where  it  is  liable  to  become  soiled 
and  filthy,  especially  in  the  spring  before  the  flies  come.  In  case  a  wound 
has  been  attacked,  all  dead  tissue,  and  as  many  of  the  parasites  as  possible 
should  be  removed.  Oil  or  tar,  turpentine  and  lard  or  kerosene  oil  are  about 
the  best  and  handiest  remedies  for  preventing  the  flies  from  laying  the  eggs, 
and  also  kills  the  eggs  that  have  been  laid. 

Nodular  Disease. 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a  parasitic  worm  which  burrows  into  the  walls 
of  the  intestines  causing  nodules  or  bunches.  The  trouble  is  most  common 
and  serious  in  the  South  and  older  sheep  are  more  often  affected  than  lambs. 
The  disease  is  spread  by  allowing  well  sheep  to  graze  on  pasture  which  has 
been  used  by  diseased  sheep.  Lambs  should  be  prevented  from  getting  the 
disease. 

Symptoms. — General  debility;  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh;  the  eyes  are 
dull  and  yellow  and  the  wool  is  rough. 

Treatment. — No. medicinal  treatment  is  satisfactory  in  ridding  sheep  of 
this  trouble.  Prevent  the  lambs  from  grazing  after  their  mothers  if  there  is 
suspicion  of  the  disease  existing.  They  may  be  kept  on  bare  lots  and  fed  green 
crops  from  racks,  carefully  removing  all  food  remaining  after  each  feeding.  In 
this  way  there  is  little  danger  of  lambs  becoming  infected  even  if  the  ewes 
are  badly  attacked  by  the  parasite.  The  ewes  which  are  infested  may  thus  be 
kept  for  breeding  purposes  without  danger  of  transmitting  the  disease  to  the 
lambs. 

Pneumonia. 

This  is  the  same  in  sheep  as  in  all  other  animals  affected  with  it,  and 
develops  from  exposure  to  cold  which  can  in  most  cases  be  prevented.  The 
simple  diseases  are  not  serious  in  themselves,  but  it  is  what  they  may  develop 
into  that  should  make  one  especially  careful  in  prevention. 

Symptoms.— A  chill,  followed  by  fever,  great  thirst ;  panting  and  heaving 
at  the  flanks;  quickened  respiration  and  coughing. 


210 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Treatment. — Put  the  animal  in  clean  dry  quarters  where  there  is  plenty 
of  fresh  air.    Place  upon  the  tongue  ten  drops  of  fluid  extract  of  gelseminum, 


Sheep  With  the  Scab. 


morning  and  night.  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  chlorate  of  potash  in  one-half  pint 
of  flaxseed  tea,  and  give  it  daily  as  a  drench  until  the  animal  is  better.  Good 
hot  applications  to  the  chest  and  lungs  are  usually  recommended.  Ten 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP— TREATMENT  211 

drops  of  aconite  should  be  given  for  the  fever.    Jamaica  ginger  (1  teaspoonful) 
in  a  glass  of  milk  will  warm  the  patient  and  ease  the  pain. 

Scab. 

Scab  and  mange  are  somewhat  similar  and  can  be  treated  practically  the 
same.  A  little  insect  digs  its  way  under  the  skin  through  filth  and  dirt  that 
has  collected.  Scabs  form  and  the  wool  comes  off  in  patches.  Low  ground  and 
damp  stables  are  bad  and  sheep  should  be  kept  in  dry  clean  pens  which 
can  be  easily  cleaned. 

Symptoms. — There  is  an  extreme  irritation  and  itching  which  causes  great 
uneasiness.  Unless  the  affected  animal  is  isolated  this  disease  will  soon  spread 
through  the  flock  as  it  is  very  contagious.  Rubbing  against  posts  and  fences 
is  common.  Wherever  great  patches  of  wool  are  seen  hanging  to  posts  there 
is  usually  this  affection  among  the  sheep. 

Treatment. — Five  or  six  pounds  each  of  tobacco  leaves  and  sulphur,  and 
25  gallons  of  water  makes  a  valuable  preparation.  Scald  the  tobacco  in  part 
of  the  water  and  add  the  sulphur  after  cooling  to  a  comfortable  heat  by  add- 
ing cold  water.  Dip  the  sheep  in  this  solution  while  it  is  warm  for  about  three 
or  four  minutes.  This  dip  cannot  be  used  strong  enough  to  kill  the  eggs  of 
the  mite.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  sheep  be  dipped  again  in  about 
ten  days  as  the  eggs  will  have  hatched  by  that  time.  In  this  way  the  young 
mites  are  destroyed. 

A  creolin  dip  or  wash  is  very  good.  Crude  petroleum  and  sulphur  are 
used  by  many  farmers.  Be  careful  of  matches  used  around  the  dip.  A  good 
double  sectioned  trough  can  be  made  for  dipping  and  draining  sheep.  The 
draining  section  should  be  elevated  somewhat. 

Stomach  Worms. 

These  are  small  hair-like  worms  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long 
which  infest  the  stomach  of  sheep,  goats  and  calves,  causing  a  most  serious 
disease.  Lambs  are  more  often  affected  than  sheep.  Wet  seasons  or  marshy 
land  seem  to  be  the  best  places  for  them  to  infect  sheep. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  loses  flesh,  becomes  debilitated;  shows  a  de- 
praved appetite,  craving  dirt  and  litter;  a  diarrhea  sets  in  which  may  be 
serious. 

Preventive  Treatment. — A  good  preventive  treatment  is  in  a  frequent  rota- 
tion of  pastures  so  that  none  of  the  pastures  will  become  too  thoroughly  in- 
fected. 

The  sheep  showing  signs  of  this  disease  should  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  flock.  The  same  treatments  given  here  are  good  for  calves.  One 
teaspoonful  of  turpentine  to  a  cup  of  sweet  milk  is  good.  One  tablespoonful 
of  gasoline  in  a  half  cup  of  milk  makes  a  splendid  remedy.  Repeat  the  dose 
every  three  days  and  if  there  is  no  improvement  at  the  end  of  ten  days  repeat 
again  every  three  days  for  two  or  three  treatments.  One  of  our  authorities 
for  this  is  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  which  advocates  its  use. 


212 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Ticks. 

The  sheep  tick  is  an  insect  which  does  not  multiply  very  rapidly,  but 
which  is  very  troublesome  in  a  flock.  The  so-called  sheep  tick  is  really  not 
a  tick  but  a  fly.  It  is  easily  killed  by  any  mange  cure. 

Treatment. — The  parasites  may  be  easily  exterminated  by  dipping  the 
sheep  in  an  infusion  of  tobacco.  A  preparation  for  that  purpose  is  now  manu- 
factured, and  can  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store  with  full  directions  for  use. 
The  best  time  to  dip  sheep  is  immediately  after  shearing,  as  the  solution 
then  readily  comes  in  contact  with  the  ticks.  Sifting  wood  ashes  in  the  wool 
often  drives  ticks  away.  Glover's  mange  cure  is  very  good. 


Stomach    of    Sheep. 
Action   of    Stomach. 

Stomach  of  ruminants. 

Stomach  of  a  full'grown  sheep,  %  natural  size  (after  Thanhoffer,  from  R.  Meade 
Smith's  Physiology  of  Domestic  Animals)  :  a,  rumen,  or  first  stomach;  b,  recticulum,  or  second 
stomach ;  c,  omasum,  or  third  stomach ;  d,  abomasum,  or  fourth  stomach ;  e,  esophagus, 
or  gullet,  opening  into  the  first  and  second  stomachs ;  /,  opening  of  fourth  stomach  into 
small  intestine;  g,  opening  of  second  stomach  into  third;  h,  opening  of  third  stomach  into 
fourth. 

The  lines  indicate  the  course  of  the  food  in  the  stomachs.  The  incompletely 
masticated  food  passes  down  the  esophagus,  or  gullet,  into  the  first  and  second  stomachs, 
in  which  a  churning  motion  is  kept  up,  carrying  the  food  from  side  to  side  and  from 
stomach  to  stomach.  From  the  first  stomach  regurgitation  takes  place;  that  is,  the  food 
is  returned  through  the  gullet  to  the  mouth  to  be  more  thoroughly  chewed,  and  this 
constitutes  what  is  known  as  "chewing  the  cud."  From  the  second  stomach  the  food 
passes  into  the  third,  and  from  the  third  into  the  fourth,  or  true  stomach,  and  from  there 
into  the  intestines. 


SWINE   PRODUCTION 

The  Economy  of  Pork  Production. — No  other  farm  animal  produces  meat 
more  economically  than  the  hog.  Pork  and  pork  products  are  important  food 
articles  and  hog  raising  has  steadily  increased  with  the  country's  rapidly 
growing  population.  The  economy  of  the  hog  in  converting  feed  into  edible 
flesh  is  deserving  of  consideration  by  every  farmer  as  well  as  by  everyone 
concerned  in  the  consumption  of  food.  The  well-filled  pork  barrel  and  supply 
of  lard,  ham  and  bacon  greatly  reduce  the  cost  of  living.  These  products  are 
also  available  to  all  classes  of  people  at  prices  that  compare  favorably  with 
other  kinds  of  meat. 

The  hog  is  a  great  feeder  and  not  particular  in  his  appetite.  He  is,  there- 
fore, highly  adapted  to  converting  household  garbage,  unmarketable  vege- 
tables, fruit,  grain,  grass  and  numerous  forage  plants,  dairy  by-products  and 
even  marketable  grain  into  meat  and  cash.  Approximately  fifty  percent  less 
feed  is  required  by  the  hog  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  than  is  required  by  the 
steer.  The  hog  also  dresses  75  to  80  percent  of  his  live  weight  as  compared 
.with  55  to  65  percent  in  the  case  of  the  steer.  Henry  and  Morrison  in  "Feeds 
and  Feeding"  have  summarized  data  from  over  500  feeding  trials  and  show  the 
economy  of  gains  made  by  pigs  ranging  from  15  to  350  Ibs.  in  live  weight.  In 
considering  the  feed  eaten,  6  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  or  12  Ibs.  of  whey  are  rated 
as  equal  to  1  Ib.  of  grain. 

Gestation  Period,  Frequency  and  Size  of  Litters  for  Brood  Sows. — The 

average  normal  period  of  gestation  for  the  brood  sow  is  112  days.  The  period 
may  range  from  100  to  108  days  for  young  sows  and  112  to  115  days  for  old 
ones.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  sow  may  be  made  to  raise  two  litters 
a  year.  In  such  instances  the  spring  litter  must  be  early  and  weaned  at  not 
less  than  three  months  of  age  or  else  the  sow  must  be  bred  on  the  third  to 
seventh  day  after  farrowing.  In  the  latter  case  the  pigs  should  be  weaned  in 
sufficient  time  to  allow  the  sow  to  regain  strength  and  properly  nourish  the 
unborn  pigs  of  the  second  litter.  Late  fall  pigs,  where  winters  are  rather 
severe,  never  do  as  well  as  spring  pigs  and  the  earlier  the  second  litter  can 
be  produced  the  better.  Only  where  the  conditions  are  suitable  for  an  abun- 
dance of  feed  and  giving  the  pigs  suitable  care  is  it  advisable  to  try  tos raise 
more  than  the  one  litter  a  season. 

Litters  vary  in  size  according  to  the  age,  care  and  condition  of  the  sow 
and  the  prolificacy  of  the  family  from  which  she  comes.  The  vigor  and 
potency  of  the  boar  is  also  believed  to  be  a  factor  in  determining  the  size  of 
litters.  Poorly  developed  boars  and  those  that  are  overworked  during  the 
breeding  season,  should  not  be  used.  Brood  sows  four  to  five  years  old  pro- 
duce larger  litters  than  gilts  bred  at  the  age  of  eight  months.  Old  sows  that 
become  heavy  and  clumsy  do  not  raise  as  large  a  percentage  of  their  litters, 

213 


214 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


however,  as  do  young  sows  and  one  must  use  judgment  in  keeping  older  sows 
for  breeding  purposes  and  exercise  greater  care  to  avoid  losses  at  farrowing 
time.  The  feed  for  maintenance,  success  with  which  sows  naturally  mother 
their  pigs,  character  and  size  of  litter  ordinarily  produced,  value  of  sow  as  a 
pure  bred  and  the  amount  of  time  one  has  to  devote  to  sows  at  farrowing 
time,  are  factors  determining  whether  one  shall  depend  upon  holding  over 
sows  from  year  to  year  for  possibly  five  or  six  years  or  depend  upon  gilts  or 
younger  sows  for  producing  litters. 

Relation  of  Weight  of  Pigs  to  Feed  Consumed  and  Rate  of  Gain. 


Weight  of  Pigs. 

Actual 
Average 
Weight, 
Pounds. 

Number  of 
Animals 
Fed. 

Average 
Feed  Eaten 
per  Day, 
Pounds. 

Feed  Eaten 
Daily  per 
100  Ibs. 
Live  Weight 
Pounds. 

Average 
Gain 
per  Day, 
Pounds. 

Feed 
for  100  Ibs. 
Gain, 
Pounds. 

15  to    50  

38 

174 

2  2 

6  0 

0  8 

293 

50  to  100     .    . 

78 

417 

3  4 

4  3 

0  8 

400 

100  to  150  

128 

495 

4.8 

3  8 

1  1 

437 

150  to  200   

174 

489 

5  9 

3  5 

1  2 

482 

200  to  250     .  .  . 

226 

300 

6  6 

2  9 

1  3 

498 

250  to  300  

271 

223 

7.4 

2  7 

1  5 

511 

300  to  350  

320 

105 

7.5 

2  4 

1  4 

53") 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Hogs. — The  following  tabulation  briefly  states  the 
types,  breeds  and  characteristics  of  the  more  prominent  breeds  of  hogs  in 
America.  The  lard  type  of  hog  is  by  far  the  more  prominent  on  farms  in 
the  United  States.  In  a  few  instances  a  premium  is  paid  for  choice  bacon 
hogs  of  the  bacon  breeds,  but  the  larger  supply  of  bacon  in  this  country  is 
supplied  by  hogs  of  proper  size  and  condition  selected  from  the  numerous 
lots  of  hogs  of  light  character  that  frequent  the  packing  house  centers. 

Hogs  of  the  lard  type  include  the  breeds  that  are  short  legged  and  that 
have  deep,  broad  and  thickly  fleshed  bodies.  The  flesh  is  especially  thick  in 
the  region  of  the  back,  hind  quarters  and  shoulders  and  produces  pork  chops, 
hams,  shoulders,  fat  pork  and  lard  in  much  greater  quantities  than  do  the 
bacon  types.  The  lard  type  is  largely  of  American  origin  and  is  the  result  of 
selecting  hogs  that  excel  in  growing  quickly  and  fattening  readily  on  liberal 
allowances  of  feed.  Turning  them  to  market  at  six  months  of  age  weighing 
200  Ibs.  is  evidence  of  their  early  maturing  qualities.  Hogs  of  the  bacon  type 
have  been  selected  and  bred  to  produce  long,  deep  bodies,  comparatively  nar- 
row, and  are  long  legged  and  long  in  the  head.  The  flesh  over  the  entire  body 
is  thin  in  comparison  with  the  lard  type  of  hog  and  produces  cuts  of  pork  most 
excellent  in  quality  and  highly  adapted  for  bacon  purposes.  They  make  a 
rapid  growth  without  the  tendency  and  quality  of  fattening  possessed  by  the 
lard  type  of  hog.  Bacon  hogs  dress  70  to  75  percent  of  their  live  weight  as 
compared  with  75  to  85  percent  in  the  case  of  well  developed  hogs  of  the 
lard  type.  In  certain  localities  of  Canada  and  the  United  States,  considerable 
attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  breeding  of  bacon  hogs  of  the  specific  bacon 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


215 


216 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


breeds.  Only  in  a  few  instances  are  prices  paid  that  warrant  specialized 
breeding  and  feeding  to  produce  choice  bacon,  otherwise  the  bacon  breeds 
would  undoubtedly  receive  greater  attention.  Under  conditions  where  corn 
and  fattening  feeds  are  not  grown  successfully  or  are  too  expensive  for  fatten- 
ing purposes,  and  where  crops  and  dairy  by-products  suitable  for  growing 
pigs  in  a  thrifty  condition  are  provided,  the  production  of  bacon  hogs  for 
supplying  home  cured  pork  and  furnishing  the  market  with  a  desirable  type 
of  bacon  hogs  may  well  be  encouraged. 

Selection  of  Breed  Important. — Under  any  circumstances  or  conditions  it 
is  profitable  to  select  a  distinct  breed  of  hogs  and  to  aim  to  secure  hogs  of 
uniform  type,  finish  and  quality.  Uniformity  in  type,  size  and  feeding  quality 
insures  to  the  grower  of  hogs  the  best  market  price.  It  is  often  said  that  the 


Parts  of  a  Hog.— 1,  Head;  2,  Ears;  3,  Jowl;  4,  Neck;  5,  Brisket;  6,  Shoulder;  7,  Girth 
around  Heart;  8,  Back;  9,  Sides;  10,  Ribs;  11,  Loin;  12,  Belly;  13,  Flank;  14,  Ham; 
15,  Tail;  16,  Legs. 

hog  responds  more  quickly  to  good  breeding  than  any  other  farm  animal. 
The  differences  in  the  improved  breeds  are  confined  to  the  shape  of  the  head, 
carnage  of  the  ear,  length  and  depth  of  the  body  and  legs,  the  average  size  at 
maturity  and  the  color.  It  may  be  said  that  more  depends  upon  a  careful 
selection  of  suitable  individuals  and  strains  and  the  painstaking  management 
after  one  has  selected  a  breed,  than  upon  the  breed.  The  pure  bred  boar  and 
a  herd  of  good  bodied  pure  bred  or  grade  sows  are  essentials  to  success  in 
pork  production. 

Selecting  the  Brood  Sow. — There  is  much  to  be  gained  in  exercising  good 
judgment  in  the  selection  of  brood  sows.  High  grade  or  pure  bred  sows  from 
large,  thrifty  litters  and  having  the  conformation  and -qualities  of  the  lard  or 
bacon  type,  as  the  case  may  demand,  tends  to  insure  best  results.  The  score 
cards  for  hogs  of  the  lard  and  bacon  types  will  be  helpful  in  giving  considera- 
tion to  all  the  parts  that  combine  to  give  the  most  satisfactory  conformation 
and  character  for  sows  of  these  types. 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  HOGS. 


Type. 

Breed. 

Nativity. 

Weight  at 
Maturity. 

Distinguishing 
Characteristics. 

Berkshire. 

England, 
Counties  of 
Berkshire  and 
Wilts. 

Boars,  500 
Sows..  400 

Black  with  white  on  face,  tail 
and  feet.  Face  well  dished. 
Ears  erect,  inclining  forward. 
Legs  medium  to  long. 

Chester  White. 

Pennsylvania, 
Chester  County. 

Boars,  600 
Sows.  .400 

Pure  white;  bluish-black  spots 
on  skin  do  not  disqualify,  but 
are  not  desirable.  Face  com- 
paratively straight.  Ears 
droop  forward,  breaking  over 
about  one-half  the  tength. 
Legs  medium  to  short. 

monly  noted  

Duroc-Jersey. 

New  York, 
Saratoga 
County. 

Boars,  600 
Sows.  .  500 

Red,  varying  from  light  to  dark. 
Face  straight  or  slightly  dish- 
ed. Ears  droop  forward,  the 
top  third  breaking  over.  Legs 
short. 

Poland-China. 

Ohio, 
Butler  and 
Warren  Counties 

Boars, 
500  to  700 
Sows, 
400  to  500 

Black  with  white  on  face,  legs 
and  tail;  most  common  and 
popular.  Face  straight  from 
eye  to  nose.  Ears  fine,  outer 
third  breaking  over  into  neat 
droop.  Legs  short.  Medium 
and  large  types  exist. 

Cheshire. 

New  York, 
Jefferson 
County. 

400  -  600 

White.  Face  slightly  dished. 
Ears  small  and  erect.  Body 
and  legs  inclined  to  be  long. 

Essex. 

England, 
Essex  County. 

400  -  500 

Black.  Face  short,  slightly 
dished.  Ears  erect.  Body 
inclined  to  be  chunky. 

Lard,  not  com- 

ijUffOiK. 

England, 
Suffolk  County. 

200  -  300 

Yellowish  white.  Face  short 
and  dished.  Ears  small  and 
erect.  Body  chunky.  Legs 
short. 

monly  noted  

Small 
Yorkshire. 

England. 

180  -  200 

White.  Face  very  short  and 
dished.  Ears  erect.  Body 
chunky  and  short.  Legs 
short. 

Victoria. 

Indiana. 

450  -  600 

White.  Face  medium  dished. 
Ears  small  and  erect.  Body 
broad  and  deep.  Legs  mod- 
erately long. 

Hampshire. 

England, 
County  of 
Hampshire. 

300  -  500 

Black  with  white  band  about 
the  body.  Face  straight  and 
medium  long.  Ears  erect,  in- 
clining forward.  Body  mod- 
erate in  depth,  length  and 
width.  Legs  comparatively 
long. 

England, 

White.  Face  medium  long, 
dished.  Ears  should  be  carried 

Large 
Yorkshire. 

Yorkshire  and 
Lancaster 
Counties. 

600  -1000 

upward,  with  slight  forward 
droop.  Body  long  and  deep. 
Legs  comparatively  long. 

Tamworth. 

England, 
Stafford 
County. 

450  -  600 

Red,  varying  from  light  to  red. 
Face  long  and  straight.  Ears 
erect,  inclining  forward.  Body 
long,  deep  and  narrow.  Legs, 
long. 

217 


218 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  HOGS  OF  LARD  TYPE. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
score 

Points  deficient 

Points  deficient 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Stud- 
ent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE—  25  POINTS 
Weight,  estimated  in  Ibs.         

6 

8 

8 
3 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
3 

6 
4 
5 

6 

8 

6 
5 
3 

2 

3 

4 
8 
5 

Weight      

Form,  deep,   broad,   low,  long,   symmetrical, 
compact  standing  squarely  on  legs 

Quality,  bone  clean;  hair  silky;  skin  soft;  head 
and  ears  refined,  evenly  covered  with  firm 
flesh                                 .            

Disposition,  quiet  docile 

HEAD  AND  NECK—  10  POINTS 

Jowl  strong  neat  broad 

FOREQUARTERS—  15  POINTS 

Shoulder,  symmetrical,  broad,  deep,  compact 

Legs,  straight,  short,  feet  and  pasterns  strong  .  . 

BODY—  30  POINTS 

Chest  deep  broad  '  girth  large 

Back,  broad,  slightly  arched,  thickly  and  evenly 
fleshed                                                  

Loin  thick  wide  and  strong                      

Belly  straight  even  and  firmly  fleshed     

TTInnlr    lr»w  anrl  wpll  flp«jVipH    Birth  IflrffP 

HINDQUARTERS—  20  POINTS 
Hips,  wide  apart,  smooth  and  well  covered  

Hams,  firm,  heavily  fleshed,  deep  and  wide.  .  .  . 
Legs,  straight,  short;  feet  and  pasterns  strong.  . 

TVif  ol 

100 

(Score  card  used  at  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture.) 

219 


220 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


0  a 

v  & 


•   c 

^  rt 

.b   >> 


P>  -o  s 

o  g  2 

w  >>f5 
f^   E 

H    £  I 
p«,« 


•O  *" 
" 


60 

52 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  HOGS  OF  BACON  TYPE. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Per- 
fect 
score 

Points  deficient 

Points  deficient 

Stu- 
dent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

Stu- 
dent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 

A.     GENERAL  APPEARANCE— 
Size,  well  developed  for  age  

5 
10 
10 
6 

4 

1 

1 
1 
2 
1 
2 

6 
3 
4 

6 
5 
4 

8 
5 
2 

4 
6 
4 

Form,  long,  smooth,  all  parts  proportionately 
developed            >            

Quality,  hair  fine'  bone  clean  and  strong;  flesh 
firm  and  smooth       

Condition,  well  covered  with  firm  flesh,  but  not 
heavily  loaded  with  fat       

•      • 

Style,  active  and  sprightly,  and  standing  well 

B.     HEAD  AND  NECK— 
Snout,  medium  length  and  moderately  fine  

Face,  broad  between  eyes;  poll,  broad  and  full  .  . 

Jowl,  fair  width  and  muscular,  but  very  neat  .  . 
Ears,  mbderately  thin  and  fringed  with  fine  hair  . 

C.     FORE  QUARTERS— 

- 

Fore  Legs,  set  well  apart;  bone  clean  and  strong. 

D.     BODY— 
Back,  medium  width,  rising  slightly  above  the 

Ribs,  good  length  and  moderately  arched  

Side,  fairly  deep  ;  long,  smooth  and  straight  .... 
Heart  Girth,  full,  filled  out  even  with  side  of 

Flank,  full  and  low  
E.     HINDQUARTERS— 

Rump,  same  width  as  back  ,  long  

Ham,  full,  thigh  tapering  •  • 
Hind  Legs,  medium  length;  bone,  clean  and 
strong          

Total  

100 



(Score  card  used  at  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture.) 

221 


222  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Motherly  Disposition  of  Brood  Sow  Essential. — In  addition  to  a  careful 
consideration  of  all  the  parts  mentioned  in  the  score  card,  the  following 
features  and  characteristics  should  be  considered  in  selecting  the  sow.  Select 
the  sow  which  is  more  roomy  than  the  score  card  suggests  and  which  at  the 
same  time  has  a  slightly  arching  back.  The  disposition  and  general  behavior 
should  indicate  motherly  qualities.  A  gilt  or  sow  of  mean  disposition  or 
lacking  in  motherly  instincts,  seldom  gives  satisfaction  however  good  she 
miy  be  in  conformation.  More  can  often  be  judged  in  this  respect  after  the 
sow  has  raised  a  litter,  although  one  accustomed  to  handling  hogs  will  not 
go  far  wrong  in  selecting  the  young  gelt. 

Select  the  sow  that  has  10  or  1.2  good  nipples.  After  the  first  litter  is 
born  there  will  be  opportunity  to  judge  of  the  sow's  milking  qualities  which 
should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  deciding  whether  or  not  she  will  be 
retained  for  further  breeding  purposes.  One  should  also  guard  against 
selecting  sows  that  are  deaf  or  that  have  bad  habits  of  catching  and  eating 
chickens  or  being  breachy.  Deaf  sows  are  sure  to  kill  many  of  their  pigs 
by  lying  on  them. 

In  mating  young  sows  to  a  large  mature  boar,  or  in  using  a  young  boar 
on  old  sows,  it  is  well  to  have  some  form  of  breeding  crate  to  give  the  younger 
animal  advantages  that  are  desirable  and  in  many  instances  necessary.  Patent 
crates  noted  in  swine  journals  serve  the  purpose  best,  although  an  ingenious 
home  device  may  answer. 

Selection  and  Care  of  the  Boar. — The  boar  should  be  a  pure  bred,  repre- 
sentative of  his"  breed  in  all  instances  and  possess  all  of  the  most  desirable 
features  and  characteristics  of  this  type  and  breed.  He  should  be  more  compact 
and  will  naturally  possess  heavier  bone  than  the  sow  if  he  is  a  good  individual. 
He  should  combine  size  and  quality  and  possess  a  masculine  appearance  as 
he  approaches  maturity.  He  should  have  good  feeding  quality  and  mature 
rapidly,  which  are  characteristics  highly  desirable  in  pigs  that  are  being  grown 
and  fitted  for  the  market. 

The  pedigree  or  family  from  which  the  boar  comes  is  deserving  of  more 
consideration  than  it  ordinarily  receives.  Breeders  of  pure  bred  hogs  should 
be  particularly  careful  to  confine  their  selection  of  both  boars  and  sows  to 
the  most  popular  and  highly  developed  families,  not  forgetting,  however,  that 
individuality  must  accompany  good  breeding. 

Securing  the  Best  Results  from  Mating  Hogs. — In  addition  to  having 
good  type  the  following  suggestions  are  offered  to  insure  good  results  from 
mating.  Too  often  there  are  no  definite  plans  in  mating.  The  number  of 
sows  to  be  saved  should  be  determined  by  the  number  of  pigs  it  appears  pos- 
sible to  feed  and  develop  or  dispose  of  to  good  advantage  subsequent  to  far- 
rowing time.  Sows  should  be  at  least  eight  months  old  before  being  bred 
and  many  prefer  to  have  them  10  to  12  months  old.  Conditions  must  be  suit- 
able for  giving  sows  and  little  pigs  comfortable  quarters  if  the  sows  are  to  be 
bred  early  in  the  season.  The  gestation  period  of  the  sow  is  112  days  and 
one  should  have  in  mind  and  record  the  date  of  farrowing  when  the  boar  is 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


224  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

turned  with  the  sow.  Having  the  sows  of  the  herd  all  bred  as  closely  together 
as  possible  will  add  to  the  convenience  and  to  the  profits  of  feeding  and  de- 
veloping a  uniform  lot  of  pigs  the  following  season.  Sows  bred  in  the  fall 
should  have  been  properly  developed  and  in  the  case  of  sows  having  had  one 
or  more  litters  they  should  have  been  separated  from  their  pigs  sufficiently 
long  and  fed  in  a  manner  to  be  in  good  condition.  It  is  reasonable  to  expect 
that  a  sow  will  breed  more  successfully  when  in  good,  thrifty  condition  than 
she  will  when  in  a  rundown,  weakened  condition.  Being  in  good  condition  at 
the  time  of  mating  will  also  tend  to  reduce  the  cost  of  wintering  her.  The  sow 
should  not  be  too  fat,  however,  at  mating  time.  At  no  time  except  for  show 
purposes  is  it  profitable  to  have  the  sow  in  more  than  good,  smooth  thrifty 
condition.  Sows  in  too  fat  condition  are  likely  to  be  shy  breeders  or  to  have 
difficulty  at  farrowing  time.  About  twenty-one  days  after  mating  sows  should 
be  watched  to  note  any  return  in  heat  that  will  occur  at  this  time  if  sows  have 
not  been  safely  bred. 

Handling  the  Boar  at  Mating  Time. — A  boar  should  not  be  put  to  service 
until  he  is  at  least  eight  months  old  and  his  service  should  be  limited  to  20 
sows  the  first  season.  In  doing  this  amount  of  service  and  in  fact  under  any 
circumstances,  he  should  have  been  grown  well  and  be  cared  for  during  the 
mating  season  in  a  manner  to  insure  a  vigorous  and  thrifty  condition.  Until 
fully  developed  the  young  boar  should  be  handled  carefully,  given  plenty  of 
exercise  and  fed  a  growing  ration.  A  mature  and  proven  boar  is  best  to 
depend  upon  for  securing  the  best  litters  and  for  that  reason  it  is  best  to  keep 
a  boar  as  long  as  he  can  be  kept  without  inbreeding  and  his  service  is  satis- 
factory. The  mature  boar  is  best  when  kept  on  a  maintenance  ration  of 
grass  and  a  small  amount  of  grain  when  necessary.  A  sufficient  amount  of 
grain  to  have  the  boar  in  good  condition  at  and  during  the  mating  season  will 
tend  to  insure  best  results.  It  is  best  to  have  a  separate  pen  and  yard  for  the 
boar  and  to  turn  the  sows  with  him  when  they  are  to  be  bred,  for  the  reason 
that  a  greater  amount  of  service  can  be  required  of  the  boar,  and  feed  and 
annoyance  will  be  saved. 

After  a  boar  is  a  year  old  his  tusks,  four  of  which  will  have  developed, 
should  be  removed  and  kept  from  getting  long  enough  to  do  damage  to  his 
attendant  and  to  other  animals.  Cutting  them  twice  a  year  with  a  pair  of 
pinchers  after  the  manner  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  is  the  best 
practice  to  follow  and  is  much  more  humane  than  breaking  them  out  with  a 
hammer  and  chisel.  The  mature  boar  will  perhaps  need  to  have  his  feet 
trimmed  occasionally.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  long  or  out  of 
shape  to  the  extent  that  the  boar  cannot  handle  himself  well.  The  feet  are 
best  trimmed  by  throwing  the  boar  and  using  a  pair  of  pinchers  and  a  rasp. 
The  boar  is  the  most  important  animal  in  the  herd  and  can  well  be  the  best 
that  money  aad  good  care  will  provide.  He  should  furthermore  be  safe- 
guarded against  infectious  and  contagious  diseases,  kept  free  from  lice  and 
given  the  necessary  attention  to  make  him  most  serviceable.  When  his  period 
of  usefulness  as  a  stock  hog  is  over  he  should  be  castrated  and  fattened  which 
as  a  general  rule  it  is  profitable  to  do. 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


225 


The  Care  of  Brood  Sows. — A  lack  of  exercise  and  a  proper  variety  of 
feeds  are  undoubtedly  the  two  greatest  failures  in  the  management  of  brood 
sows.  An  abundance  of  exercise  is  necessary  for  growing  animals  and  brood 
sows  and  especially  should  this  be  kept  in  mind  during  the  winter  months 
when  there  is  likely  to  be  no  inducement  for  hogs  to  get  far  away  from 
their  nest  and  feeding  place.  Pregnant  sows  should  be  encouraged  or  compelled 
to  take  exercise.  Having  them  travel  about  and  root  for  their  feed  by  having 
the  feeding  place  some  distance  from  their  sleeping  quarters  and  more  or 
less  of  the  grain  scattered  in  litter  on  a  feeding  floor,  accomplishes  the  end 
of  making  them  exercise. 

The  sleeping  quarters  should  be  kept  clean  and  dry.  Several  sows  kept 
together  with  a  good  nest  will  keep  comfortably  warm  in  winter  which  is  a 
saving  of  feed,  a  kindness  to  animals  and  advantageous  in  other  respects. 
Sows  should  be  free  from  lice  and  treatment  to  rid  them  of  lice  during 
winter  should  be  given  before  the  weather  becomes  cold'.  Avoid  entrances  to 
pens  or  yards  over  which  heavy  pregnant  sows  have  to  drag  their  bellies  over 
a  sill  or  cross  piece. 

The  Feeding  of  Pregnant  Sows. — A  variety  of  feeds  should  be  supplied 
pregnant  sows  in  quantities  that  enables  the  sows  to  gain  or  retain  a  thrifty 
condition.  A  ration  of  equal  parts  ground  corn  or  barley,  wheat  middlings 
and  wheat  bran  or  alfalfa,  fed  as  a  thick  slop,  provides  a  good  ration. 

Feeding  alfalfa  hay  in  racks  in  the  yard  if  it  is  not  practical  to  grind 
it  will  answer  very  well.  Ear  or  shelled  corn  scattered  about  and  a  thin  slop 
of  middlings  in  addition  to  alfalfa,  clover,  soy  bean  or  pea  vine  hay,  pro- 
vide an  excellent  and  economical  ration.  A  few  sugar  beets  or  sugar  mangels 
keep  sows  in  a  suitable  laxative  condition  and  take  the  place  of  bran  that 
may  be  used  in  the  ration. 

The  Sow  at  Farrowing  Time. — Sows 
that  farrow  late  in  the  season  are  often 
left  to  make  their  own  nests  and  farrow 
without  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
owner.  This  does  not  insure  the  best  re- 
sults and  a  better  plan  is  to  have  a  clean, 
roomy  pen  in  the  hog  house  or  a  sepa- 
rate hog  cot  arranged  and  bedded  prop- 
erly for  farrowing  quarters.  The  sow 
should  be  put  into  the  farrowing  pen  sev- 
eral days  before  she  is  due  to  farrow  to  be- 
come accustomed  to  the  new  quarters. 
The  bedding  should  be  fine,  free  from 
dust  to  prevent  coughing  and  pneumonia, 

CORNER  OP  FARROWING      and    supplied  in  amounts    that  the    sow 
PEN  EQUIPPED  WITH  FENDER  wjj|  make  best  use  of  in  making  her  nest. 

Careless  or  indifferent  sows  will  be  less  likely  to  injure  or  kill  their  pigs  if 
little  bedding  is  used.    The  farrowing  pen  should  be  provided  with  a  rail 


226  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

fender,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  to  protect  the  little  pig  as 
the  sow  lies  down.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  precautions  should  be  taken  to  pro- 
tect the  sow  and  little  pigs  from  becoming  chilled.  A  box  with  a  lantern 
in  the  bottom  and  a  basket  suspended  in  the  top  in  which  the  new  born  pigs 
can  be  put  until  they  are  dry  and  have  nursed  the  mother,  will  be  helpful  when 
the  weather  is  cold  and  quarters  are  not  sufficiently  warm.  A  hot  bath  may 
revive  a  chilled  pig. 

Having  sows  familiar  with  the  attendant  and  accustomed  to  being  han- 
dled and  the  attendant  being  on  hand  to  see  that  the  pigs  are  properly  started 
in  life,  insures  against  losses  that  frequently  occur. 

During  the  first  day  after  farrowing  the  sow  should  be  as  quiet  as  pos- 
sible Water  with  the  chill  removed  should  be  offered  her  and  only  a  small 
amount  of  laxative  feed  like  a  thick  slop  of  bran  supplied  if  she  appears  to 
be  hungry.  It  is  best  to  feed  her  sparingly  for  a  few  days  to  avoid  milk  fever 
and  difficulty  with  the  little  pigs.  After  24  hours  the  feed  should  be  gradually 
increased  until  in  two  weeks  time  the  sow  is  getting  a  liberal  ration  suitable 
for  milk  production  which  should  be  continued  until  the  pigs  are  weaned. 

Suitable  Rations  for  Sows  With  Litters. — Rations  for  sows  with  litters 
after  they  have  been  gradually  worked  onto  full  feed,  must  be  liberal  and  of  a 
character  to  make  lots  of  milk  and  keep  the  sow  from  losing  flesh  too  rapidly. 
Sows  that  are  good  milkers  will  naturally  lose  weight  during  the  time  they 
are  nursing  their  litters.  Rich  slop  of  skim  milk,  butter  milk,  wheat  mid- 
dlings, red  dog  flour,  ground  oats,  peas,  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  tankage  and  oil 
meal  in  combination  with  'corn  meal,  barley  and  other  starchy  feeds  should 
be  provided  in  quantities  that  the  sow  will  clean  up  without  waste  twice  or 
three  times  daily. 

A  mixture  of  equal  amounts  by  weight  of  corn  or  corn  meal,  wheat  mid- 
dlings and  finely  ground  oats  and  to  every  100  pounds  of  this  six  to  eight 
pounds  of  oil  meal,  fed  with  skim  milk,  suggests  one  combination  for  provid- 
ing a  suitable  ration. 

An  abundance  of  good  grass  pasture  or  suitable  forage  will  save  much 
of  the  grain  that  otherwise  will  be  necessary  to  feed  and  greatly  increase  the 
profits-  of  hog  raising.  In  fact  hog  raising  on  a  large  scale  may  be  regarded 
unprofitable  unless  an  abundance  of  pasture  or  forage  or  some  comparatively 
inexpensive  by-product  can  be  utilized. 

Salt  and  Correctives  for  Hogs. — Sows  as  well  as  growing  and  fattening 
pigs  should  have  salt  and  correctives  which  are  better  supplied  by  keeping  a 
suitable  mixture  in  a  covered  trough  or  self-feeder  where  free  access  can  be 
had  to  them,  than  trying  to  mix  them  with  the  feed.  Charcoal  is  a  most  ex- 
cellent corrective.  Day  recommends  a  mixture  of  ten  parts  wood  ashes,  one 
part  salt  and  one  part  sulphur  if  charcoal  is  not  available.  Air  slaked  lime, 
ground  lime  stone,  rock  phosphate,  bone  meal,  soft  coal  and  copperas  are 
other  correctives  used  more  or  less  in  mixtures  or  placed  in  separate  com- 
partments of  a  self-feeder.  During  the  summer  when  hogs  have  access  to  the 
earth  and  vegetable  matter  they  have  little  need  of  correctives  as  a  rule. 


SWINE  PRODUCTION  227 

Difficulties  at  Farrowing  Time. — Sows  that  eat  their  pigs  at  farrowing 
time  do  so  because  of  a  feverish  condition  and  an  abnormal  appetite.  Proper 
rations,  access  to  correctives  and  abundant  exercise  are  insurance  against 
difficulties  at  farrowing  time  as  a  rule.  Where  sows  show  the  abnormal  appe- 
tite and  desire  to  eat  their-  pigs,  it  has  been  recommended  that  three  pounds 
of  salt  pork  be  cut  up  and  fed  to  the  sow.  Another  recommendation  is  to 
sponge  the  pigs  with  mucilage  containing  equal  parts  of  aloes  and  asafetida 
as  soon  as  they  are  dry  after  birth.  The  offensive  odor  prevents  the  sows  from 
touching  the  pigs  in  this  instance. 

When  conditions  are  abnormal  and  the  sow  is  unable  to  give  birth  to 
her  pigs,  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  them  and  this  is  done  most  satis- 
factorily by  means  of  pig  forceps  which  it  is  worth  while  to  have  in  the  list, 
of  useful  instruments  on  the  farm.  A  successful  farmer  and  stockman  states 
that  in  two  instances  where  sows  were  found  in  a  critical  condition  due  to 
inability  to  give  birth  to  their  pigs,  they  succeeded  in  doing  so  and  were  saved 
by  a  method  of  treatment  handed  down  to  him  by  his  father.  The  treatment 
was  to  give  the  sow  access  to  a  pool  of  water  or  to  shower  or  drench  her  with 
cold  water. 

Care  and  Development  of  Pigs. — Up  to  the  age  of  about  four  weeks  little 
pigs  derive  all  of  their  nourishment  from  the  mother.  To  see  that  they  are 
properly  owned  by  their  mother,  exercised  sufficiently  to  avoid  getting  the 
thumps  and  provided  with  a  clean  dry  nest,  is  all  that  one  can  do  for  them  up 
to  this  age.  When  they  begin  to  eat  at  the  trough  with  their  mother  they 
should  be  encouraged  to  eat  from  a  small  trough  set  in  a  pen  or  yard  to  which 
they  can  enter  and  the  mother  cannot.  This  insures  faster  growth  and  de- 
velopment and  saves  their  drawing  too  heavily  upon  the  mother.  The  same 
ration  of  skim  milk  and  grain  supplied  to  the  mothers  will  be  suitable. 

Castration  of  Pigs. — The  only  excuse  for  delaying  castration  after  pigs 
are  six  weeks  old  is  in  getting  a  development  of  pure  bred  pigs  that  will  decide 
whether  or  not  they  will  be  saved  for  breeding  purposes.  For  pork  purposes, 
castration  is  best  done  when  the  pigs  are  small  and  can  be  easily  handled.  The 
operation  is  comparatively  simple  and  anyone  can  perform  it  who  has  been 
instructed  and  once  shown  how.  The  principal  precautions  are  as  follows : 

Do  not  defer  the  operation  after  six  weeks  unless  for  good  reasons.  The 
older  the  animal  the  greater  the  loss  of  blood  and  vitality  and  the  longer  it 
will  take  the  pigs  to  recover. 

Choose  a  cool  day  when  pigs  will  not  easily  become  over  heated  from  the 
excitement.  Avoid  as  much  excitement  as  possible  by  having  the  pigs  away 
from  their  mothers  and  older  hogs. 

Have  a  clean  pen  in  which  to  perform  the  operation.  After  a  rain  when 
the  yards  and  fields  are  clean  and  free  from  dust  will  be  a  time  when  the 
wounds  will  heal  with  the  least  chance  for  infection.  Do  not  allow  pigs  to 
run  to  pools  of  stagnant  or  filthy  water. 

Hold  the  pig  firmly  and  make  the  incisions  large  and  low  enough  so  that 
the  wound  will  properly  drain. 


228  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Prior  to  making  the  incision  and  before  releasing  the  pig  after  the  opera- 
tion has  been  performed,  sponge  the  scrotum  and  wound  with  a  three  percent 
solution  of  coal  tar  disinfectant. 

Marking  Pigs  for  Identification. — Pure  bred  pigs  that  are  to  be  registered 
and  sold  for  breeding  purposes  must  be  given  some  mark  of  identification  in 
order  that  there  may  be  no  question  with  reference  to  their  breeding  and  age. 
A  system  of  marking  widely  used  and  recommended  is  herewith  illustrated. 

One  notch  in  outer  rim  of  right  ear  counts  1,  in  outer  rim  of  left  ear  3. 
in  inner  rim  of  right  10,  and  in  inner  rim  of  left  30.  Combinations  of  these 
notches  can  easily  be  made  to  number  up  to  100,  as  shown  in  the  Key.  The 
three  figures  at  the  right  of  the  Key  show  how  the  ears  are  marked  for  litters 
5,  17,  and  41.  The  litters  each  year  should  be  numbered  in  the  order  of  their 
birth,  each  pig  of  the  litter  given  the  same  marking.  Litter  identification 
marks  should  always  be  entered  in  a  record  book. 


KEY  5  17  41 

One  method  of  marking  the  Pigs  with  a  punch  or    a  like   instrument   made   especially  for  that  purpose. 

This  system  is  quite  easy  to  learn  and  remember.  Numbers  1  and  3 
should  be  firmly  fixed  in  mind,  also  10  and  30.  Thus  No.  2  is  simply  two 
No.  1's;  No.  4,  a  combination  of  3  and  1,  which  makes  four;  No.  5,  a  combina- 
tion of  3  and  2 ;  No.  6  two  3's ;  No.  7  a  combination  of  6  and  1 ;  No.  8  a  com- 
bination of  6  and  2;  and  No.  9,  three  3's.  But  few  notches  will  be  required 
to  mark  the  number  of  any  litter  up  to  100.  By  keeping  note  book  and  herd 
records  of  the  litter  markings,  the  date  of  farrowing  and  breeding  of  all  ani- 
mals can  be  tabulated  and  keep  easily  for  reference. 

Weaning  and  Growing  Pigs. — If  sows  are  required  to  raise  only  one  litter 
a  year,  the  pigs  may  be  left  with  them  and  not  weaned  until  three  months 
old.  If  sows  raise  two  litters  a  year  the  pigs  should  not  nurse  more  than 
eight  weeks.  When  pigs  are  weaned  it  is  well  to  separate  them  into  groups 
according  to  size.  Not  more  than  20  pigs  will  feed  to  good  advantage  in  the 
same  lot.  Good  pasture  of  June  grass,  clover,  alfalfa  and  forage  crops  lik'; 
rape,  peas  and  oats,  should  be  available  for  growing  pigs  after  they  are 
weaned  and  during  the  season.  In  addition  to  pasture  two  pounds  of  concen- 
trates and  never  less  than  1  pound  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight  should  be 
fed.  If  available  six  pounds  of  skim  milk  or  12  pounds  of  whey  may  be  re- 
garded equivalent  to  1  pound  of  the  concentrates  required.  Pigs  should  gain 
and  make  a  growth  so  that  if  desirable  to  finish  them  at  6  or  7  months  they 
will  weigh  200  pounds  or  more.  The  finishing  period  will  need  to  be  the  last 
two  months  in  this  instance  and  corn,  barley  or  other  fattening  concentrates 
fed  in  as  large  quantities  as  the  pigs  will  consume.  It  pays  to  include  with 


SWINE  PRODUCTION  229 

these  fattening  feeds  10  per  cent  of  high  grade  tankage  or  to  feed  more  or  less 
other  nitrogenous  feeds  like  red  dog  flour,  wheat  middlings  and  oil  meal  in 
addition  to  the  highly  carbonaceous  feeds  like  corn  or  barley.  Corn  may  be 
fed  on  the  ear  or  shelled  and  there  is  little  or  no  gain  in  grinding  or  soaking 
it.  The  exercise  and  feeding  of  coarse  feeds  should  be  reduced  during  the 
finishing  period.  If  pigs  are  to  be  carried  and  finished  at  an  older  age  they 
should  be  continued  on  pasture  and  a  limited  amount  of  grain  until  the  finish- 
ing period  is  reached.  Only  under  conditions  where  pasture  is  abundant  and 
there  is  an  opportunity  to  make  an  economical  growth  and  to  fatten  hogs  after 
steers  or  in  a  manner  to  make  profitable  gains,  is  it  a  good  policy  to  produce 
heavy  butcher  hogs.  The  most  economical  gains  are  usually  those  made  by 
pigs  weighing  under  250  pounds. 

Fall  pigs  that  do  not  get  the  benefit  of  pasture  and  forage  should  be 
provided  with  most  suitable  quarters  and  rations  including  dairy  by-products, 
a  good  mixture  of  concentrates  and  during  the  growing  period  clover,  alfalfa 
or  other  legume  hay  or  chaff  and  roots.  Finely  cut  legume  hay  mixed  in  the 
slop  is  excellent  for  growing  pigs  in  winter. 

Cooked  potatoes  mashed  and  mixed  with  meal  can  be  fed  to  good  ad- 
vantage. Only  in  the  instance  of  feeding  potatoes  does  it  pay  to  cook  feed 
for  hogs.  Hot  water  to  provide  warm  slop  for  pigs  in  winter  will  add  to  their 
growth  and  the  economy  of  gains  made. 

Self-Feeders  for  Hogs. — Experiment  Station  trials  on  growing  and  fatten- 
ing hogs  with  self-feeders  and  the  experience  of  practical  swine  growers  show 
that  this  method  of  feeding  after  weaning  is  well  adapted  to  the  quick  growing 
and  fattening  of  pigs.  The  method  is  also  well  adapted  to  fattening  old  sows 
or  sows  that  are  to  be  turned  to  the  butcher  soon  after  pigs  are  weaned. 
When  it  is  the  plan  to  grow  pigs  largely  on  pasture  and  not  hurry  the  growth, 
the  self-feeder  should  not  be  used.  Judgment  must  be  exercised  in  using 
self-feeders  for  pregnant  sows.  Bulky  feed  like  cut  legume  hay  will  need  to 
be  supplied  to  prevent  sows  getting  too  much  grain  and  becoming  too  fat. 
Corn  and  meat  meal  or  tankage  in  separate  compartments  of  the  self-feeder 
with  good  alfalfa  or  rape  pasture,  and  access  to  salt  and  plenty  of  pure,  fresh 
water,  provides  a  most  economical  system  of  producing  pork.  Evvard  of  the 
Iowa  Station  has  also  found  that  the  self-feeder  may  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage in  dry  lots  for  feeding  shelled  corn  and  tankage.  Salt,  ground  limestone 
and  charcoal  were  also  furnished  pigs  in  a  self-feeder  under  dry  lot  conditions. 

Water  Essential  to  Hogs. — Dietrich,  who  is  a  good  authority,  concludes 
that  a  proper  amount  of  water  for  pigs  ranges  from  12  pounds  daily  per  100 
pounds  of  weight,  from  time  of  weaning  down  to  four  pounds  per  100  pounds 
during  the  fattening  period.  It  is  his  opinion  that  pigs  do  not  drink  water 
enough  in  winter  and  that  they  should  be  encouraged  to  drink  more  than  they 
usually  do  by  warming  it  and  mixing  more  of  it  in  their  slop. 

Feeding  for  Bacon. — Day,  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  is  one 
of  the  best  authorities  on  bacon  production  in  America.  The  highest  grade 
and  quality  of  bacon  requires  that  the  fat  should  be  clear  white,  the  flesh  firm 


230  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

and  the  percentage  of  lean  to  fat  much  higher  than  in  the  carcass  of  the  lard 
hog.  While  the  breeding  of  the  hog  has  much  to  do  with  the  conformation, 
the  feeding  has  much  to  do  with  the  character  of  the  meat.  Fattening  feeds 
like  corn  fed  exclusively  do  not  produce  the  right  character  of  flesh  for  bacon. 
Oily  carcasses,  the  result  of  feeding  beans,  more  especially  soy  beans  and 
peanuts  are  rejected  altogether  and  carcasses  which  approach  an  oily  condi- 
tion produce  bacon  of  low  quality.  Barley  ranks  first  for  producing  a  high 
grade  of  bacon,  and  is  followed  by  oats  and  peas.  Dairy  by-products  with 
cereal  grains,  including  corn  and  a  considerable  variety  of  feeds,  produces 
good  results.  Only  where  there  is  a  premium  paid  for  hogs  most  suitable  for 
bacon  can  it  be  expected  that  farmers  will  study  to  produce  and  finish  bacon 
hogs  that  will  compare  favorably  with  those  that  may  be  considered  best  for 
the  purpose. 

Denmark  has  a  select  bacon  trade  and  excels  in  the  production  of  the 
highest  quality  of  bacon.  The  following  is  quoted  relative  to  rations  used  by 
the  Danes  in  the  production  of  bacon : 

"Ground  barley,  cooked  potatoes,  and  skim  milk;  shorts  and  skim  milk; 
2  parts  shorts,  2  parts  ground  barley,  1  part  corn  meal,  and  skim  milk;  2  parts 
ground  barley,  1  part  wheat  bran,  1  part  ground  rye,  and  skim  milk ;  2  parts 
ground  barley,  1  part  ground  oats,  1  part  corn  meal,  and  skim  milk.  Corn  meal 
is  fed  with  care,  especially  during  warm  weather;  when  fed  in  small  quantities 
with  barley,  shorts,  oats,  and  bran,  combined  with  a  liberal  allowance  of  skim 
milk,  there  are  no  bad  results.  Some  good  feeders  use  corn  meal  to  the  extent 
of  one-third  or  one-half  of  the  grain  ration  during  the  first  three  or  four  months 
and  then  omit  it  and  finish  with  oats  or  similar  feed.  Feeders  are  sometimes 
compelled  to  use  corn  on  account  of  the  low  price  of  bacon.  Ground  rye  to 
the  extent  of  about  one-third  of  the  ration  gives  good  results,  but  rye  shorts 
are  not  satisfacory  and  are  only  used  in  small  quantities.  The  best  feeds  are 
ground  barley,  crushed  oats,  and  wheat  shorts.  Roots  are  fed  during  winter 
and  soiling  crops  during  summer." 

Marketing  Hogs. — As  with  other  classes  of  stock,  the  producer  should 
study  and  keep  posted  on  the  market  situation.  The  following  market  classi- 
fication of  hogs  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  deciding  or  anticipating 
about  what  a  given  lot  of  hogs  are  worth  on  the  market.  One  should  also 
be  posted  on  other  features  of  the  market  that  influence  prices  and  on  freight, 
yardage  and  commission  charges.  This  knowledge  will  be  helpful  in  selling 
at  home  to  drovers  or  shippers  as  well  as  in  shipping  a  carload  or  more  to  a 
packing  house  center.  Unless  one  has  at  least  a  carload  or  can  combine  with 
a  neighbor  to  make  a  carload,  it  is  best  to  sell  at  home  or  some  nearby 
slaughtering  plant  where  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  ship.  Stock  yard  com- 
panies or  live  stock  commission  firms  will  be  glad  to  furnish  information  on 
commission,  yardage  and  feeding  charges,  dockage  and  rules  relating  to  in- 
spection, disposal  of  dead  animals  and  methods  of  practice. 

Shipping  Hogs  to  Market. — The  shrinkage  on  a  carload  of  hogs  weighing 
15,000  to  17,000  pounds  may  be  1,000  pounds  when  conditions  are  wrong.  The 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


231 


MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HOGS. 


Classes 

Sub-Classes 

Grades 

Prime  heavy  hogs,  350-500  Ibs  

Prime 

Butcher  hogs,  180-350  Ibs  

Heavy  butchers,  280-350  Ibs  

Prime 
Good 
Prime 
Good 
Common 

Medium  butchers,  220-280  Ibs  

Light  butchers,  180-220  Ibs  

Packing  hogs,  200-500  Ibs  

Heavy  packing,  300-500  Ibs  

Good 
Common 
Inferior 

Medium  packing,  250-300  Ibs  . 

Mixed  packing,  200-280  Ibs  

T  icrVit  hncns     19^220  lh<? 

English,  160-220  Ibs  

Choice 
Light 
Fat 

United  States,  155-195  Ibs  

Choice 
Good 
Common 

Light  mixed,  150-220  Ibs  

Good 
Common 
Inferior 

Light  mixed,  125-150  Ibs  

Good 
Common 
Inferior 

Pigs  60-125  Ibs 

Choice 
Good 
Common 

Roughs,  stags,  boars. 

Miscellaneous  

Roasting  pigs,  15-30  Ibs. 
Feeders 
Governments 
Pen-holders 
Dead  Hogs 

shipper  should  aim  to  have  as  little  shrinkage  as  possible  and  the  following 
suggestions  are  offered  on  shipping  to  the  best  advantage. 

Hogs  ship  better  and  fill  better  at  the  end  of  their  destination  if  they  are 
not  fed  just  prior  to  being  loaded.  If  they  can  be  fed  12  hours  after  being 
on  the  road  in  the  car  at  some  stopping  point,  it  will  be  profitable  to  the 
shipper  to  feed  them.  It  is  customary  to  feed  and  water  as  soon  as  they 
arrive  at  their  destination  and  are  unloaded. 

Cars  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  well  bedded.  A  layer  of  clean 
straw  covered  with  sand  makes  a  turfrlike  bed  on  which  hogs  will  lie  down 
and  ride  comfortably  and  come  out  of  at  the  market  in  a  clean,  strong  condi- 
tion that  makes  them  sell  well.  Hogs  that  are  uneasy  and  restless  during 
shipment  always  shrink  badly.  The  condition  of  the  hogs  upon  arriving  at 
the  market  makes  more  difference  in  the  price  received,  than  the  commission 
firm  which  sells  them  and  which  is  criticised  not  infrequently  for  not  securing 


232  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

a  better  price.  It  is  well  for  the  shipper  to  accompany  his  stock  and  observe 
under  what  conditions  best  results  may  be  secured. 

Growing,  Developing  and  Marketing  Pure  Bred  Hogs. — Pure  bred  hogs 
for  breeding  purposes  may  be  fed  and  developed  after  the  manner  suggested 
for  growing  pigs  from  birth  to  the  period  when  they  are  to  be  fattened.  The 
character  of  stock  developed  plays  the  greater  part  in  making  pure  bred  stock 
breeding  successful,  and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  have  the  stock  to  be 
offered  in  the  most  attractive  condition  without  its  being  pampered.  Only 
show  animals  are  fattened  to  show  all  of  their  possibilities  and  the  aim  should 
be  to  have  sale  stock  in  a  thrifty,  well  developed  condition  without  being 
fattened  but  carrying  an  abundance  of  firm,  natural  flesh. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  just  how  a  young  pig  will  develop,  but 
all  individuals  that  are  off  type  and  color,  or  deficient  in  any  manner  should 
be  separated  from  sale  lots  and  only  the  best  individuals  retained.  Boars  and 
sows  should  be  kept  in  separate  lots  and  not  too  many  pigs  should  run  to- 
gether in  a  given  lot. 

A  complete  record  of  the  breeding  and  identity  of  individual  pigs  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  success.  A  record  book,  as  well  as  the  certificates  of 
registration,  should  be  posted  and  will  be  found  valuable  to  the  extent  that 
it  contains  a  record  and  notes  on  all  transactions.  The  secretary  of  the  breed 
association  who  looks  after  the  registration  and  interests  of  the  breed  in  ques- 
tion will  be  able  to  furnish  full  information,  forms  for  registering  and  trans- 
ferring and  suggestions  on  keeping  complete  records.  Certificates  of  registry 
and  transfer  should  be  promptly  furnished.  '  Stock  that  has  to  be  shipped 
should  be  crated  and  sent  in  as  satisfactory  a  manner  as  possible.  A  pleased 
customer  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  advertising  and  the  true  stockman  en- 
deavors to  work  for  the  best  interest  of  his  customers. 

Buildings  and  Equipment  for  Hogs. — Each  farm  is  equipped  with  build- 
ings peculiar  to  itself  and  the  proprietor  or  manager.  Good  drainage  and  dry- 
ness  are  two  important  features  of  buildings  and  yards  for  pigs.  Good  ven- 
tilation, plenty  of  light,  warmth  in  winter  and  a  convenient  arrangement  of 
pens,  feeding  troughs,  bins  for  feed  and  facilities  for  providing  and  heating 
water  are  desirable  for  a  central  hog  barn.  A  damp,  cold  building  is  altogether 
unsatisfactory.  The  central  hog  house  should,  therefore,  be  constructed  to 
admit  the  maximum  amount  of  sunlight.  What  is  termed  the  farmer's  type 
of  sunlight  hog  house,  commonly  recommended,  may  be  regarded  as  the  most 
approved  type  and  admits  the  greatest  amount  of  sunlight  to  ail  parts  of  the 
building. 

Concrete  floors  and  walls  two  feet  above  the  floor  are  most  sanitary  and 
may  be  used,  provided  that  wood  overlays  are  used  in  the  pens,  for  sleeping 
quarters.  These  overlays  should  be  portable  to  enable  pens  to  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected. 

For  summer  when  hogs  should  be  moved  to  pasture  fields,  the  small  colony 
house  is  highly  desirable.  The  A-shaped  house  has  the  advantage  of  being  easily 
constructed,  inexpensive  and  readily  moved  from  place  to  place.  It  should  be  lo- 
cated with  reference  to  convenience  and  good  drainage.  The  number  of  these 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


233 


houses  can  be  increased  as  the  herd  may  increase  and  it  is  possible  to  arrange  and 
bank  them  in  a  sheltered  place  to  render  them  useful  for  providing  winter  quarters 
for  sows,  gilts  and  fattening  hogs. 

The  accompanying  illustration  of  the  framework  of  an  A-shaped,  portable 
hog  house  and  the  following  bill  of  lumber  is  necessary  to  construct  the  shed 
in  complete  form : 

Nine  pieces  1"  x  12"  x  16'  and  11  O.  G.  battens  16'  long  for  roof. 

Three  pieces  2"  x  6"  x  16'  and  11  O.  G.  battens  16'  long  for  roof. 

Five  pieces  1"  x  12"  x  14'  for  ends. 

One  piece  2"  x  4"  x  10'  for  ridge. 

Two  pieces  2"  x  8"  x  10'  for  plates. 

Seven  pieces  2"  x  4"  x  16'  for  rafters  and  braces  in  frame. 

Three  pieces  2"  x  6"  x  8'  for  runners. 

Four  pieces  1"  x  12"  x  16'  rough  for  flooring. 

Sanitation,  Disinfection  and 
Quarantine  Measures. — The  hog 
is  naturally  not  a  filthy  animal. 
One  must  exercise  care,  how- 
ever, in  keeping  pens  and  yards 
in  a  clean,  sanitary  condition  for 
otherwise  filth  rapidly  accumu- 
lates and  the  environment  be- 
comes undesirable.  Hogs  that 
receive  proper  kinds  and 
amounts  of  feed  are  least  in- 
clined to  root  up  their  yards.  If 
the  hog  house  and  feeding  yards 
have  proper  drainage  it  is  not 
difficult  to  keep  the  hogs  from 
wallowing  in  filthy  pools.  Pro- 
viding concrete  pools  in  which  clean  water  and  crude  oil  or  disinfectants  can 
be  available  for  hogs,  are  desirable  in  many  respects. 

Disinfectants  should  be  used  freely.  Five  parts  of  creolin  or  crude  car- 
bolic acid  in  one  hundred  parts  of  water,  chloride  of  lime,  or  proprietary  disin- 
fectants should  be  used  to  disinfect  pens.  Where  a  contagious  disease  has 
been  present,  floors,  walls,  all  equipment  and  immediate  yards  should  be 
scraped  and  disinfected.  Larger  paddocks  and  fields  should  be  plowed  where 
they  become  foul.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  regular  season  for  cleaning, 
whitewashing  and  putting  building  and  yards  in  good  repair  and  order. 

Where  animals  are  purchased  or  are  returned  from  fairs  and  expositions, 
a  rigid  rule  of  keeping  them  quarantined  and  separate  from  the  home  herd  for 
three  weeks  will  guard  against  a  general  outbreak  of  disease.  Any  sick  hog 
should  be  removed  from  the  herd  immediately  and  the  disease  carefully  in- 
vestigated to  prevent  a  further  spread  of  it.  Hogs,  which  die  are  best  disposed 
of  by  burning  the  carcass.  They  at  least  should  be  buried  deeply  enough  to 
prevent  their  being  dug  up  by  dogs  or  other  animals. 


DISEASES    OF   SWINE. 

General  Symptoms. 

Appetite ;  loss  of  appetite ;  fever ;  thirst ;  much  distress ;  dry  mouth ;  diarrhea 
with  a  little  blood ;  weakness ;  once  in  a  while  vomiting. — Inflammation 
of  the  Bowels — Enteritis,  Page  252. 

Appetite, loss  of;  udder  tender  and  hard;  fever;  shrinkage  in  milk. — Inflamed 
Udder,  Page  259. 

Appetite  poor  (in  sows)  ;  dullness ;  thirst ;  fever ;  much  pain/ — Inflammation 
of  the  Womb,  'Page  259. 

Arched  back ;  pains  in  the  side ;  chills ;  fever ;  some  coughing ;  uneasiness  ; 
fast  breathing. — Pleurisy,  Page  265. 

Back  arched;  pains  in  the  side;  chills;  fever;  little  coughing;  uneasiness;  fast 
breathing. — Pleurisy,  'Page  265. 

Black  teeth  (veterinarians  as  a  rule  do  not  consider  black  teeth  as  a  symptom 
of  disease). 

Blind. — Hog  acts  blind  in  last  stages  of  the  disease ;  poor  appetite ;  rapid  la- 
borious breathing;  delirium.  (The  hog  runs  about  wildly,  generally  in 
a  circle.  He  runs  into  things.)  Symptoms  in  first  stages  of  the  disease : 
disinclination  to  move;  acts  stupid;  bloodshot  eyes;  bowels  constipated; 
pulse  hard  and  quick. — Epilepsy,  Page  253. 

Blisters  or  tumors  on  the  mouth  or  between  the  toes  •  fever ;  perhaps  dullness. 
— Aphthous  Fever,  Page  248. 

Bloating;  little  fever;  ill  smelling  manure;  passing  of  dry  manure  at  first  but 
later  thin  manure  containing  blood  and  mucus ;  uneasiness ;  poor  appe- 
tite ;  dullness ;  some  distress. — Dysentery,  'Page  252. 

Bloating;  much  pain. — Acute  Indigestion,  'Page  248. 

Bloating,  pain;  chills;  fever;  quick  breathing;  tenderness  of  abdomen;  vomit- 
ing and  quickened  pulse. — Peritonitis,  'Page  264. 

Blood  and  mucus. — Passing  of  dry  manure  at  first  but  later  thin  manure  con- 
taining blood  and  mucus ;  uneasiness ;  poor  appetite ;  dullness  ;  some  pain  ; 
fever  and  bloating ;  ill-smelling  manure. — Dysentery,  "Page  252. 

Bloating  with  pain  and  uneasiness  coming  on  very  suddenly  sometimes; 
vomiting. — Obstruction  of  the  Bowels,  Page  263. 

Blood. — Diarrhea  with  a  little  blood  in  the  manure;  weakness;  dry  mouth; 
loss  of  appetite ;  fever ;  thirst ;  much  pain  ;  sometimes  vomiting. — Inflam- 
mation of  the  Bowels  or  Enteritis,  Page  252. 

Blood  discharges  from  nose  (in  severe  cases)  ;  discharges  of  mucus ;  snuffling. 
—Snuffles,  'Page  267. 

Blood-shot,  prominent  eyes ;  hog  stupid ;  restless ;  suddenly  he  may  drop  over 
as  though  hit  with  a  sledge  hammer  and  the  limbs  become  straight  and 

234 


235 

stiff;  he  may  seem  dead  but  for  his  heavy  breathing. — Apoplexy,  Page 
249. 

Blood  vomited  out  that  is  dark  colored  and  contains  particles  of  food ;  loss  of 
appetite. — Blood  From  Stomach,  Page  250. 

Bowels. — Animal  is  found  straining  and  unable  to  empty  the  bowels. — Stric- 
ture of  the  Rectum  or  Large  Bowel,  Page  263. 

Bowels. — Either  too  loose  or  costive ;  craving  for  filthy  food ;  loss  of  appetite ; 
•  fits  (in  young  pigs)  fever ;  urine  brown  in  color  and  scanty. — Indigestion, 
Page  259. 

Bowels. — Extreme  looseness  of  bowels  without  any  disease. — Diarrhea  and 
Scours,  Page  252. 

Bowels. — Soft  tumors  found  near  the  outer  opening  of  the  large  bowel. — Piles, 
Page  264. 

Breathing  difficult  and  quickened ;  hoarse  cough ;  loss  'of  appetite ;  discharge  of 
mucus  from  the  mouth  (sometimes  from  the  nose  too)  pushing  head  out; 
fever;  weakness. — Bronchitis,  Page  250. 

Breathing  difficult;  sore  and  swollen  glands  under  the  throat;  neck  swollen; 
swallowing  difficult ;  protruding  of  the  tongue  from  the  mouth  covered 
with  slaver. — Quinsy,  Page  265. 

Breathing — fast  and  laborious  breathing;  fever  following  a  chill;  loss  of  appe- 
tite; uneasiness;  severe  coughing;  pain. — Pneumonia  or  Lung  Fever, 
Page  265. 

Breathing  fast;  back  arched;  pains  in  the  side;  chills;  fever;  some  coughing; 
uneasiness. — Pleurisy,  Page  265. 

Breathing  fast;  bloating;  pain;  chills;  fever;  tenderness  of  abdomen;  vomit- 
ing ;  quickened  pulse. — Peritonitis,  Page  264. 

Breathing  fast ;  dry,  persistent,  harsh  cough,  especially  when  exercised ;  con- 
tinued falling1  away  and  weakness ;  diarrhea  or  constipation.  (The  symp- 
toms of  tuberculosis  have  no  very  decided  characteristics.  The  tuberculin 
test  is  a  surer  way  of  determining  the  presence  of  the  disease.) — Tuber- 
culosis, Page  269. 

Breathing  hard  and  difficult  in  later  stages  of  the  disease ;  grating  and  gnash- 
ing of  teeth;  groaning;  convulsions.  First  symptoms  are:  extremely 
painful  swelling  on  the  neck  near  the  larynx.  The  hair  on  this  swelling 
soon  becomes  bleached,  stands  on  end  and  is  brittle  and  hard. — White 
Bristle,  Page  271. 

Breathing  rapid  and  laborious  in  last  stages  of  the  disease ;  poor  appetite ;  de- 
lirium. (The  hog  runs  about  wildly,  generally  in  a  circle.  He  seems 
blind  and  runs  into  things.)  In  first  stages  the  symptoms  are:  acts 
stupid  :  constipated  bowels ;  pulse  hard  and  quick. — Epilepsy,  Page  253. 

Bunch — puffy  soft  bunch  at  the  navel  which  can  be  pressed  back  through  the 
opening  into  the  body. — Navel  Hernia  or  Rupture,  Page  263. 

Cancerous  condition  of  sow's  tail  developed  during  pigging  time. — Cancer  of 
the  Tail,  Page  250. 

Cheeks,  lips  and  tongue  are  covered  with  pimples  that  are  yellowish-white 
and  full  of  pus  following  a  slavering  at  the  mouth ;  gnashing  of  teeth,  dis- 


236  THE   RURAL   EFFICIENCY    GUIDE— STOCK 

tressful  and  staring  expression  of  the  eyes,  poor  appetite  and  some  fever. 
These  pimples  soon  change  to  brown  and  then  to  black. — Gum  Mouth, 
Page  254. 

Chill  followed  by  fever ;  accelerated  and  laborious  respiration ;  loss  of  appetite ; 
uneasiness;  severe  coughing;  and  pain. — Pneumonia  or  Lung  Fever, 
Page  265. 

Chills  and  pain  in  the  side;  fever;  little  coughing;  uneasiness;  fast  breathing; 
the  back  is  arched. — Pleurisy,  Page  265. 

Chills;  bloating;  pain;  fever;  quick  breathing;  tenderness  of  abdomen;  vomit- 
ing; quickened  pulse. — Peritonitis,  Page  264. 

Chills  followed  by  feverish  heat  in  rapid  succession;  gait  swaggering  and 
unsteady;  very  red  mucous  membrane;  vomiting  a  discolored  or  bloody 
fluid ;  convulsions. — Apoplectic  Anthrax,  Page  249. 

Circle. — Hog  running  in  -a  circle  ;  running  into  objects ;  frothing  at  the  mouth ; 
rapid  laborious  breathing;  hog  acts  stupid;  falling  over  and  straightening 
out  legs. — Blind  Staggers,  Page  249. 

Cold  extremities ;  head  held  down  and  mouth  open ;  great  distress ;  weak 
pulse ;  pig  cannot  stand ;  blood  running  from  the  nose  in  some  cases. — 
Pneumonia  or  Lung  Fever,  Page  265. 

Constipation ;  dullness ;  yellowish  mucous  membranes ;  some  cough ;  generally 
comes  on  during  hot  weather. — Liver  Disease,  P'age  260. 

Cough. — Dry,  persistent,  harsh  cough ;  rapid  breathing,  especially  when  exer- 
cised ;  continued  falling  away  and  weakness ;  diarrhea  or  constipation. 
(The  symptoms  of  tuberculosis  have  no  very  decided  characteristics. 
The  tuberculin  test  is  a  surer  way  of  determining  the  presence  of  the 
disease.) — Tuberculosis,  Page  269. 

Coughing ;  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  nose ;  heaving  at  the  flanks ;  loss  of 
appetite. — Colds,  Page  251. 

Coughing,  especially  in  .the  morning  when  the  pig  comes  from  his  bed ;  jerking 
of  the  body ;  palpitation  of  the  heart. — Thumps,  Page  268. 

Coughing  frequently  with  no  mucus  discharge  and  no  apparent  inflamma- 
tion of  the  mucous  membranes. — Colds,  Page  251. 

Cough  hoarse;  loss  of  appetite,  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  mouth  (some- 
times from  nose  too)  quickened  difficult  breathing;  pushing  head  out; 
fever;  weakness. — Bronchitis,  Page  250. 

Coughing;  rash  breaking  out  on  fourth  day;  some  sneezing;  sore  throat;  in- 
flamed eyes;  fever;  swollen  eyelids;  fast  breathing. — Measles,  Page  261. 

Coughing;  severe  coughing;  pain;  fast  and  laborious  breathing;  first  a  chill 
and  then  fever;  loss  of  appetite;  uneasiness. — Pneumonia,  Page  265. 

Coughing  spasmodically ;  swallowing  with  difficulty ;  skin  hot  and  dry ;  throat 
inclined  to  fill  up. — Sore  Throat,  Page  268. 

Coughing  when  suddenly  aroused ;  sluggishness,  disinclination  to  move  when 
disturbed;  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh;  growing  so  weak  they  walk  with 
an  uncertain  gait;  sometimes  staggering;  hind  legs  particularly  weak; 
eyes  inflamed  and  lids  gummed  together;  profuse  diarrhea;  sick  for  sev- 
eral months. — Hog  Cholera,  (chronic  form)  Page  254. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE  237 

Diarrhea,  bad  form  of;  gait  uncertain;  sometimes  staggering;  coughing  when 
suddenly  aroused;  sluggishness;  disinclination  to  move  when  disturbed; 
loss  of  appetite  and  flesh ;  hind  legs  particularly  weak ;  eyes  inflamed  and 
lids  gummed  together;  sick  for  several  months. — Hog  Cholera  (chronic 
form.)  Page  254. 

Discharge  from  nose;  nose  is  inflamed  and  the  inflammation  steadily  increases; 
membrane  of  the  nose  swollen  and  dry;  sneezing. — Nasal  Catarrh,  Page 
262. 

Dropping  over  as  though  hit  with  a  sledge  hammer  and  the  limbs  becoming 
straight  and  stiff  following  a  stupid  and  restless  condition  of  the  hog; 
eyes  prominent  and  blood-shot ;  he  may  seem  dead  but  for  his  heavy 
breathing. — Apoplexy,  Page  249. 

Dry  manure. — Passing  of  dry  manure  at  first  but  later  thin  excrement  con- 
taining blood  and  mucus;  uneasiness;  poor  appetite;  dullness;  some 
pain;  a  little  fever  and  bloating;  ill  smelling  manure. — Dysentery,  Page 
252. 

Dullness ;  constipation ;  yellowish  mucous  membranes ;  some  cough ;  generally 
comes  on  during  hot  weather. — Liver  Disease,  Page  260. 

Dullness ;  (in  sows)  ;  poor  appetite ;  thirst ;  fever ;  much  pain. — Inflammation 
of  the  Womb,  Page  259. 

Dullness;  languor;  indisposition  to  move;  lameness  in  one  or  more  limbs; 
swelling,  heat  or  tenderness  of  a  tendon,  joint  or  bunch  of  muscles. — 
Rheumatism,  Page  266. 

Eating  enormous  quantities  of  food ;  eating  filthy  food. — Morbid  Appetite, 
Page  262. 

Eating. — Pig  eats  a  plenty  but  does  not  gain  as  he  should.  He  may  even 
fall  away.— Stunted,  Page  268. 

Eyeballs  inflamed,  tears  falling  over  the  cheeks. — Inflammation  of  the  Eyes, 
Page  259. 

Eye. — Enlarging  of  the  pupil. — Paralysis  of  the  Retina,  Page  264. 

Eye-lids  swollen;  eyes  inflamed;  sore  throat;  coughing;  rash  breaking  out 
on  fourth  day;  some  sneezing;  fever;  fast  breathing. — Measles,  Page  261. 

Eyes  blood  shot  in  first  stages  of  the  disease;  hog  is  not  inclined  to  move; 
acts  stupid,  bowels  constipated ;  pulse  hard  and  quick.  Later  symptoms : 
poor  appetite;  rapid  laborious  breathing;  delirium.  (The  hog  runs  about 
wildly  generally  in  a  circle.  He  seems  blind  and  runs  into  things.) 
Epilepsy,  Page  253. 

Eyes  have  a  distressful  and  staring  expression;  poor  appetite;  some  fever; 
restlessness;  slavering;  gnashing  of  teeth.  Later  yellowish-white  pim- 
ples that  are  full  of  pus  come  on  the  cheeks,  lips  and  tongue.  These 
pimples  though  yellowish-white  at  first  soon  change  to  brown  and  then 
to  black. — Gum  Mouth,  Page  254. 

Eyes  inflamed  and  lids  gummed ;  spots  of  red  or  purple  in  color  on  the  ski 
especially  on  the  abdomen,  inside  the  legs  and  around  the  neck  and 
ears;  blood  stained  spots  on  snout;  snout  dry;  disinclined  to  move  about; 
poor  appetite;   weakness;   shivering;  high  fever;  hiding  under  litter; 


238  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

weakness  of  hind  limbs  at  first  and  then  of  front  limbs;  intense  thirst; 
bowels  tight  at  first  but  later  loose  and  offensive ;  tender  abdomen ;  many 
hogs  dying  within  a  few  days. — Hog  Cholera  (Acute),  Page  254. 

Eyes  inflamed  and  lids  gummed  together ;  gait  uncertain ;  sometimes  stagger- 
ing; coughing  when  suddenly  aroused;  sluggishness;  disinclination  to 
move  when  disturbed ;  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh ;  hind  legs  particularly 
weak ;  profuse  diarrhea ;  sick  for  several  months. — Hog  Cholera  (Chronic 
form),  Page  254. 

Eyes  inflamed;  sore  throat;  coughing;  rash  breaking  out  on  the  fourth  day; 
some  sneezing;  sore  throat;  fever;  swollen  eye  lids;  fast  breathing. — 
Measles,  Page  261. 

Eyes  prominent  and  blood-shot ;  hog  stupid ;  restless ;  suddenly  he  may  drop 
over  as  though  hit  with  a  sledge  hammer  and  the  limbs  become  straight- 
ened and  stiff ;  he  may  seem  dead  but  for  his  heavy  breathing. — Apoplexy, 
Page  249. 

Falling  away  of  flesh,  weakness;  diarrhea  or  constipation;  dry,  persistent, 
harsh  cough ;  rapid  breathing  especially  when  exercised.  (The  symp- 
toms of  tuberculosis  have  no  very  decided  characteristics.  The  tuber- 
culin test  is  a  surer  way  of  determining  the  disease.) — Tuberculosis, 
Page,  269. 

Falling  over  and  straightening  out  legs;  hog  acts  stupid;  running  in  a  circle; 
frothing  at  the  mouth;  rapid,  laborious  breathing. — Blind  Staggers, 
Page,  249. 

Fever  (in  sows)  ;  loss  of  appetite;  udder  tender  and  hard;  shrinkage  in  milk. 
—Inflamed  Udder,  Page  259. 

Fever  (in  sows)  ;  severe  pain ;  thirst ;  loss  of  appetite ;  dullness. — Inflamma- 
tion of  the  Womb,  Page  259. 

Fever;  vomiting;  stiffness;  dullness;  fast  pulse;  poor  appetite;  thirst;  stupor; 
men;  quickened  pulse. — Peritonitis,  Page  264. 

Fever;  vomiting;  stiffness;  dullness;  fast  pulse;  poor  appetite;  thirst  stupor; 
delirium. — Scarlet  Fever,  Page  267. 

Fits  (in  young  pigs)  ;  some  fever ;  urine  brown  in  color  and  scanty ;  bowels 
either  too  loose  or  costive;  craving  for  filthy  food;  loss  of  appetite. — 
Indigestion,  Page  259. 

Flanks  heaving;  discharges  of  mucus  from  the  nose;  coughing;  loss  of  ap- 
petite.—Colds,  P;age  251. 

Flesh;  continual  falling  away  of  flesh  and  weakness;  fast  breathing;  dry, 
persistent,  harsh  cough,  especially  when  exercised ;  diarrhea  or  constipa- 
tion. The  symptoms  of  tuberculosis  have  no  very  decided  character- 
istics. The  tuberculin  test  is  a  surer  way  of  determining  the  presence 
of  the  disease.) — Tuberculosis,  Page  269. 

Food. — Craving  for  filthy  food;  loss  of  appetite;  bowels  either  too  loose  or 
costive ;  fits  (in  young  pigs)  ;  fever ;  urine  brown  in  color  and  scanty. — 
Indigestion,  Page  259. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE  239 

Food. — Eating  enormous  quantities  of  food ;  eating  tilthy  food. — Morbid  Ap- 
petite, Page  262. 

Food  refused;  gait  unsteady;  weakness;  dullness;  rooting  in  bedding;  bury- 
ing head  or  whole  body  in  the  litter;  lying  down  more  than  usual;  chills 
alternating  with  fever  in  quick  succession ;  fast  pulse ;  constipated  bowels ; 
manure  dark  colored  and  hard ;  red  spots  on  inside  of  legs ;  on  abdomen, 
breast  and  neck;  these  spots  soon  turn  to  erysipelatous  swellings;  small 
pustules  on  parts  of  swollen  surface;  increasing  fever;  in  last  stages 
hind  quarters  are  paralyzed  and  convulsions  set  in. — Erysipelas,  Page 
253. 

Fore  feet  far  in  advance  of  the  body  when  walking;  continually  shifting  the 
weight  from  one  foot  to  another. — Founder  or  Sore  Feet,  Page  267. 

Gait  uncertain;  sometimes  staggering;  coughing  when  suddenly  aroused; 
sluggishness,  disinclination  to  move  when  disturbed;  loss  of  appetite 
and  flesh;  hind  legs  particularly  weak;  eyes  inflamed  and  lids  gummed 
together;  profuse  diarrhea;  sick  for  months. — Hog  Cholera  (chronic 
form),  Page  254. 

Gait  unsteady;  refusal  of  food;  weakness;  dullness;  rooting  in  bedding;  bury- 
ing head  or  whole  body  in  straw ;  lying  down  more  than  usual ;  chills 
alternating  with  fever  in  quick  succession;  fast  pulse;  constipated  bowels; 
manure  dark  colored  and  hard ;  red  spots  on  inside  of  legs ;  on  abdomen, 
breast  and  neck;  these  spots  soon  turn  to  erysipelatous  swellings;  small 
pustules  on  parts  of  swollen  surface  increasing  fever;  mucous  membrane 
is  purple  or  lead-gray  in  color ;  labored  breathing ;  later  the  hind  quarters 
of  the  hog  are  paralyzed ;  convulsions  set  in,  and  death  results  if  the  dis- 
ease is  allowed  to  run  this  far. — Erysipelas,  Page  253. 

Hair  dropping  from  the  skin  in  ring-like  patches,  the  center  of  these  patches 
becoming  dry  and  the  edges  moist. — Ringworm,  Page  266. 

Head. — Bending  of  head ;  shaking  and  trembling  of  body ;  unthrifty  condition. 
The  pig  soon  gets  stiff  and  tumbles  over,  struggling  a  short  time.  After 
lying  quiet  for  a  short  time  he  gets  up  and  acts  perfectly  well  until  an- 
other sick  spell  overtakes  him. — Fits  in  Pigs,  Page  254. 

Head  held  low  down  and  mouth  open;  great  distress;  weak  pulse;  cold  ex- 
tremities; pig  cannot  stand;- blood  running  from  nose  in  some  cases. — 
Pneumonia  or  Lung  Fever,  Page  265. 

Head.— Moving  head  from  side  to  side ;  hog  sits  on  haunches ;  changes  position 
frequently ;  grunts ;  squeals ;  and  sometimes  bloats. — Colic,  Page  251. 

Head. — Pushing  head  out ;  fever ;  weakness ;  breathing  difficult  and  quickened ; 
hoarse  cough;  loss  of  appetite;  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  mouth 
(sometimes  from  the  nose).— Bronchitis,  Page  250. 

Itching  severely ;  large  sores  caused  from  rubbing ;  scabs  on  the  skin.— Mange, 
Page  261. 

Inflamed  eyeballs ;  tears  falling  over  the  cheeks.— Inflammation  of  the  Eyes, 

Page  259. 

Jerking  of  body;  coughing,  especially  in  the  morning  when  the  pig  come 
from  his  bed ;  palpitation  of  the  heart.— Thumps,  Page  268. 


240  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Lameness  in  one  or  more  limbs ;  swelling,  heat  or  tenderness  of  a  tendon, 

joint  or  bunch  of  muscles ;  indisposition  to  move ;  languor ;  dullness. — 

Rheumatism,  Page  266. 
Lice  on  animal. — Lice,  Page  260. 

Manure  clay  colored;  yellow  appearing  pig;  poor  appetite;  dullness;  constipa- 
tion; vomiting;  digestion  out  of  order. — Yellows,  Page  272. 
Manure. — Diarrhea  with  a  little  blood  in  the  manure ;  weakness ;  dry  mouth  ; 

loss  of  appetite  ;  fever ;  thirst ;  much  pain  ;  sometimes  vomiting. — Inflam- 
mation of  the  Bowels  or  Enteritis,  Page  252. 
Manure. — 111  smelling;  a  little  fever  and  bloating;  passing  of  dry  manure  at 

first  .but    later    thin    manure    containing    blood    and    mucus ;    uneasiness ; 

poor  appetite;  dullness;  some  pain. — Dysentery,  Page  252. 
Manure  passed  in  dry,  compact,  ball-like  masses. — Constipation,  Page  251. 
Manure. — Yellow  thin  manure,  much  distress. — Diarrhea  and  Scours,  Page 

252. 
Milk. — Shrinkage  in  milk ;  udder  tender  and  hard ;  loss  of  appetite ;  fever. — 

Inflamed  Udder,  Page  259. 
Mouth  covered  with  blisters  or  tumors;  blisters  may  also  come  between  the 

toes ;  fever ;  perhaps  dullness. — Aphthous  Fever,  Page  248. 
Mouth  dry;  loss  of  appetite;  fever;  thirst;  much  distress;  diarrhea  with  a 

little  blood ;  weakness ;  sometimes  vomiting. — Inflammation  of  the  Bowels 

or  Enteritis,  Page  252. 
Mouth. — Frothing  at  the  mouth;  rapid  laborius  breathing;  hog  acts  stupid; 

running  into  objects,  running  in  a  circle;  falling  over  and  straightening 

out  legs. — Blind  Staggers,  Page  249. 
Mouth  open;  head  held  down;  great  distress;  weak  pulse;  cold  extremities; 

pig  cannot  stand;  blood  running  from  nose  in  some  cases. — Pneumonia 

or  Lung  Fever,  Page  265. 
Movements  of  the  muscles  on  various  parts  of  the  body  are  involuntary  and 

convulsive  although  they  seem  to  be  voluntary  unless  noticed  carefully. — 

Chorea. 

i 

Moving. — Hog  is  not  inclined  to  move  in  first  stages  of  the  disease;  acts 
stupid  ;  blood-shot  eyes ;  constipated  bowels ;  hard  and  quick  pulse.  Later 
symptoms;  poor  appetite;  rapid  laborious  breathing;  delirium.  (The 
hog  runs  about  wildly  generally  in  a  circle.  He  seems  blind  and  runs 
into  things.) — Epilepsy,  Page  253. 

Mucus  coming  from  nose;  coughing;  heaving  of  the  flanks;  loss  of  appetite. — 
Colds,  Page  251. 

Mucus  discharged  from  the  nose,  also  blood  in  severe  cases ;  snuffling. — 
Snuffles,  Page  267. 

Mucus. — Discharge  of  mucus  from  the  mouth ;  loss  of  appetite ;  hoarse  cough  ; 
quickened  difficult  breathing;  pushing  head  out;  fever;  weakness. — Bron- 
chitis, Paee  250. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE  241 

Muscles  on  various  parts  of  the  body  move  involuntarily  and  convulsively. 

The  contractions  are  lax  and  irregular  and  seem  to  be  voluntary. Chorea. 

Navel.— Puffy  soft  bunch  at  the  navel  which  can  be  pressed  back  through 

the  opening  into  the  body.— Navel  Hernia  or  Rupture,  Page  263. 
Neck  swollen ;  glands  under  the  throat  are  sore  and  swollen ;  breathing  and 

swallowing  difficult;   protruding  of   tongue  from  mouth   covered   with 

slaver. — Quinsy,  Page  265. 
Nose. — Discharges  of  mucus  from  the  nose;  coughing;  heaving  at  the  flanks; 

loss  of  appetite. — Colds,  Page  251. 
Nose. — Discharges  of  mucus  from  the  nose;  discharges  of  blood  in  severe 

cases;  snuffling. — Snuffles,  Page  267. 
Nose. — Membrane  of  the  nose  swollen  and  dry;  sneezing;  loss  of  appetite; 

discharge  from  nose ;  the  nose  is  inflamed  and  the  inflammation  steadily 

increases. — Nasal  Catarrh,  Page  262. 

Pain. — Much  pain  and  bloating. — Acute  Indigestion,  Page  248. 
Pain  and  uneasiness  coming  on  very  suddenly  sometimes;  some  bloating; 

vomiting. — Obstruction  of  the  Bowels,  Page  263. 
Pain;  scratching  of  nose  and  hind  parts;  rooting;  looseness  or  costiveness 

of  bowels ;  sometimes  a  little  blood  and  mucus  in  the  manure ;  enormous 

appetite  with  little  improvement  in  flesh ;  uneasiness. — Worms,  Page  271. 
Pains. — Severe  pain   (in  sows) ;  thirst ;  poor  appetite ;  dullness,  fever. — In- 
flammation of  the  Womb,  Page  259. 
Pains  in  the  side;  chills;  fever;  little  coughing;  uneasiness;  fast  breathing; 

the  back  is  arched. — Pleurisy,  Page  265. 
Paralyzed;  cannot  move  about. — Paralysis,  Page  263. 
Passing  of  dry  manure  in  compact,  ball-like  masses. — Constipation,  Page  251. 
Pimples  appearing  on  skin  from  which  liquid  oozes;  fluid  hardens  and  comes 

off  giving  the  skin  a  scaly  appearance. — Scaly  Skin  Disease,  Page  266. 
Pimples  that  are  yellowish-white  and  full  of  pus  come  on  the  cheeks,  lips 

and   tongue   following  a   slavering  at   the   mouth,   gnashing   of   teeth; 

distressful  and  staring  expression  of  the  eyes;  poor  appetite  and  some 

fever.     These  pimples  soon  change  to  brown  and  then  to  black. — Gum 

Mouth,  Page  254. 
Position. — Changing  position    frequently;   hog  moves   his   head    from   side   to 

side;  sits  on  haunches;  grunts;  squeals;  sometimes  bloats. — Colic,  Page 

251. 
Pulse  weak;  head  held  down  and  mouth  open;  cold  extremities;  pig  cannot 

stand;  blood  running  from  nose  in  some  cases. — Pneumonia  or  Lung 

Fever,  Page  265. 

Pupil  of  the  eye  enlarged. — Paralysis  of  the  Retina,  Page  264. 
Rash  breaking  out  on  fourth  day;  coughing;  little  sneezing;  sore  throat;  in- 
flamed eyes;  fever;  swollen  eyelids;  fast  breathing.— Measles,  Page  261. 
Rectum.— Turning  out  of  the  rectum.— Eversion  of  the  Rectum,  Page  254. 


242  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Ring-like  patches  of  hair  dropping  from  the  skin,  the  center  of  these  patches 
becoming  dry  and  the  edges  moist. — Ringworm,  Page  266. 

Rooting;  looseness  or  costiveness  of  bowels;  sometimes  a  little  blood  and 
mucus  in  the  manure;  enormous  appetite  with  little  improvement  in  flesh; 
uneasiness ;  pain ;  scratching  of  nose  and  hind  parts. — Worms,  Page  271. 

Running  about  wildly  in  last  stages  of  the  disease ;  generally  running  in  a 
circle;  running  into  objects;  rapid  laborious  breathing;  poor  appetite.  In 
first  stages  the  sympto.ms  are :  blood-shot  eyes ;  disinclination  to  move ; 
acts  stupid;  bowels  constipated;  pulse  hard  and  quick. — Epilepsy,  Page 
253. 

Running  into  objects ;  hog  acts  stupid ;  running  in  a  circle ;  falling  over  and 
straightening  out  legs ;  frothing  at  the  mouth ;  rapid  laborious  breathing. — 
Blind  Staggers,  Page  249. 

Sack. — Testicle  sack  is  greatly  enlarged  and  feels  dough-like  and  soft  to  the 
touch. — Scrotal  Hernia  or  Rupture. 

Scaly  appearance  of  skin;  pimples  appearing  on  the  skin  from  which  fluid 
oozes ;  fluid  hardens  and  comes  off  giving  the  skin  a  scaly  appearance. — 
Scaly  Skin  Disease,  Page  266. 

Scratching  of  nose  and  hind  parts  ;  rooting;  looseness  or  costiveness  of  bowels  ; 
sometimes  a  little  blood  and  mucus  in  the  manure;  enormous  appetite; 
with  little  improvement  in  flesh ;  uneasiness ;  pain. — Worms,  Page  271. 

Shaking  and  trembling  and  bending  of  head  following  an  unthrifty  condition. 
The  pig  soon  gets  stiff  and  tumbles  over,  struggling  a  short  time.  After 
lying  quiet  for  a  little  while  he  gets  up  and  acts  perfectly  well  until  an- 
other sick  spell  overtakes  him. — Fits  in  Pigs,  Page  254. 

Shifting  the  weight  from  one  foot  to  another  continually;  walking  with  fore- 
feet far  in  advance  of  the  body. — Founder  or  Sore  Feet,  "Page  267. 

Shivering;  hiding  under  the  litter;  disinclined  to  move  about;  loss  of  appetite; 
sluggishness;  weakness;  high  fever;  lying  on  belly;  weakness  of  hind 
limbs  at  first  and  later  of  front  limbs ;  inflamed  eyes  and  gummed  lids ;  red 
or  purplish  blotches  on  the  skin,  especially  on  the  abdomen,  inside  the 
legs  and  around  the  neck  and  ears ;  rapid,  weak  pulse ;  dry  snout  covered 
with  blood-stained  spots;  intense  thirst;  bowels  tight  at  first  but  later 
loose  and  offensive ;  tender  abdomen ;  often  a  hard  cough ;  many  hogs  dy- 
ing within  a  few  days. — Hog  Cholera  (acute),  Page  254. 

Sitting  on  haunches ;  hog  moves  head  from  side  to  side ;  changes  position  fre- 
quently ;  grunts ;  squeals ;  sometimes  bloats. — Colic,  Page  251. 

Skin. — Hair  dropping  from  the  skin  in  ring-like  patches;  the  center  of  these 
patches  becoming  dry  and  the  edges  moist. — Ringworm,  Page  266. 

Skin  hot  and  dry ;  throat  inclined  to  fill  up ;  spasmodic  coughing ;  difficulty  in 
swallowing  dry  feed. — Sore  Throat,  Page  268. 

Skin. — Pimples  appearing  on  the  skin  from  which  fluid  oozes;  fluid  hardens 
and  comes  off  giving  the  skin  a  scaly  appearance. — Scaly  Skin  Disease, 
Page  266. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE  243 

Slaver  covering  tongue  when  it  protrudes  from  the  mouth ;  soreness  and  swell- 
ing of  glands  under  the  throat  followed  by  difficult  swallowing  and  breath- 
ing ;  neck  swollen. — Quinsy,  Page  265. 

Slavering;  gnashing  of  teeth;  eyes  have  a  distressful  and  staring  expression; 
poor  appetite;  some  fever.  Later  yellowish-white  pimples  that  are  full 
of  pus  come  on  the  cheeks,  lips  and  tongue.  These  pimples  though  yellow- 
ish-white at  first,  soon  change  to  brown  and  then  to  black. — Gum  Mouth, 
Page  254. 

Sluggishness  •  disinclination  to  move  when  disturbed ;  coughing  when  sud- 
denly aroused ;  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh ;  growing  so  weak  they  walk  with 
an  uncertain  gait,  sometimes  staggering;  hind  legs  particularly  weak; 
eyes  inflamed  and  lids  gummed  together ;  profuse  diarrhea ;  sick  for  several 
months. — Hog  Cholera  (chronic  form),  Page  254. 

Sneezing;  membrane  of  the  nose  swollen  and  dry;  loss  of  appetite;  discharge 
from  nose ;  the  nose  is  inflamed  and  the  inflammation  steadily  increases. — 
Nasal  Catarrh,  Page  262. 

Snuffling;  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  nose  and  discharges  of  blood  in  severe 
cases. — Snuffles,  Page  267. 

Sores  back  of  pig's  ears. — Sorehead,  Page  268. 

Soreness  of  sow's  tail  due  to  sort  of  cancerous  condition  developed  during  pig- 
ging time. — Cancer  of  the  Tail,  Page  250. 

Sores. — Large  sores  on  the  skin  caused  by  rubbing;  severe  itching;  scabs  on 
the  skin. — Mange,  Page  261. 

Spots  of  red  or  purple  color  on  the  skin,  especially  on  the  abdomen,  inside  the 
legs  and  around  the  neck  and  ears;  blood-stained  spots  on  snout;  dry 
snout;  disinclined  to  move  about;  poor  appetite;  weakness;  shivering; 
fever;  hiding  under  litter;  weakness  of  hind  limbs  at  first  and  then  of 
fore  limbs ;  inflamed  eyes  and  gummed  lids ;  intense  thirst ;  bowels  tight 
at  first  but  later  loose  and  offensive ;  tender  abdomen ;  many  hogs  dying 
within  a  few  days. — Hog  Cholera  (acute),  Page  254. 

Spots  red  in  color  on-  inside  of  legs,  on  abdomen,  breast  and  neck ;  these  spots 
soon  turn  to  erysipelatous  swellings;  refusal  of  food;  gait  unsteady;  dull- 
ness ;  burying  head  or  whole  body  in  litter ;  lying  down  more  than  usual ; 
chills  alternating  with  fever  in  quick  succession ;  fast  pulse ;  constipated 
bowels ;  manure  dark  colored  and  hard ;  dullness ;  increasing  fever ;  in  last 
stages  hind  quarters  are  paralyzed  and  convulsions  set  in. — Erysipelas, 
Page  253. 

Stiffness  and  tumbling  over  following  a  shaking  and  trembling  and  bending 
of  the  head.  The  pig  remains  quiet  for  a  short  time  and  then  gets  up 
and  acts  perfectly  well  until  another  sick  spell  overtakes  him. — Fits 
in  Pigs,  Page  254. 

Stiffness,  dullness;  fever;  fast  pulse;  poor  appetite;  thirst;  stupor;  vomiting; 
delirium.— Scarlet  Fever,  Page  267. 

Straining  and  unable  to  empty  the  bowels. — Stricture  of  the  Rectum,  Page 
263. 


244  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Straining  and  vomiting ;  extreme  looseness  of  bowels. — Diarrhea  and  Scours, 
Page  252. 

Straw. — Hiding  under  litter;  disinclined  to  move  about;  loss  of  appetite; 
sluggishness;  weakness;  shivering;  high  fever;  lying  on  belly;  weakness 
of  hind  limbs  at  first  and  later  of  front  limbs ;  inflamed  eyes  and  gummed 
lids;  red  or  purplish  blotches  on  the  skin;  especially  on  the  abdomen,  in- 
side the  legs  and  around  the  neck  and  ears ;  rapid  weak  pulse ;  dry  snout 
covered  with  blood-stained  spots ;  intense  thirst ;  bowels  tight  at  first  but 
later  loose  and  offensive ;  tender  abdomen ;  often  a  hard  cough,  dying 
within  a  few  days. — Hog  Cholera  (acute),  Page  254. 

Stupid  actions  of  hog;  running  into  objects;  running  in  a  circle;  falling  over 
and  straightening  out  legs ;  frothing  at  the  mouth ;  rapid  laborious  breath- 
ing.— Blind  Staggers,  Page  249. 

Stupid,  restless;  the  eyes  are  prominent  and  blood-shot;  suddenly  the  hog 
may  drop  as  though  hit  with  a  sledge  hammer  and  the  limbs  become 
straightened  and  stiff;  he  may  seem  dead  but  for  his  heavy  breathing. — 
Apoplexy,  Page  249. 

Swaggering  and  unsteady  gait ;  much  pain ;  temperature  changing  from  fever- 
ish heat  to  cold  chills  in  rapid  succession;  very  red  mucous  membrane; 
vomiting  a  discolored  or  bloody  fluid ;  convulsions. — Apoplectic  Anthrax, 
Page  249. 

Swallowing  is  difficult  when  eating  dry  feed ;  spasmodic  coughing ;  throat  in- 
clined to  fill  up ;  dry  and  hot  skin. — Sore  Throat,  Page  268. 

Swallowing  with  difficulty ;  skin  hot  and  dry ;  throat  inclined  to  fill  up ;  spas- 
modic coughing. — Sore  Throat,  Page  268. 

Swelling,  heat  or  tenderness  of  a  tendon,  joint  or  bunch  of  muscles;  indis- 
position to  move;  langour;  dullness;  lameness  in  one  or  more  limbs. — 
Rheumatism,  Page  266. 

Swelling  on  the  neck  near  the  larynx  that  is  extremely  painful.  The  hair 
on  this  swelling  is  soon  bleached  and  stands  on  end.  It  is  brittle  and  hard. 
In  the  later  stages  of  the  disease  the  following  symptoms  are  prominent : 
grating  and  gnashing  of  teeth;  laborious  breathing;  groaning,  convul- 
sions. The  diseased  hog  dies  within  a  few  days. — White  Bristle,  Page 
271. 

Swelling  on  throat  that  is  painful,  hot  and  hard;  there  is  wheezing;  laborious 
breathing ;  swollen  tongue ;  hoarse  grunting ;  dry  snout ;  brownish-red 
color  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  ;  attempts  to  vomit ;  difficulty 
in  swallowing  food;  high  fever.  (This  disease  usually  comes  as  an  epi- 
demic and  spreads  over  a  large  territory) . — Malignant  Angina,  Page  260. 

Swollen  testicle  sack  that  feels  dough-like  and  soft  to  the  touch. — Scrotal 
Hernia  or  Rupture,  Page  263. 

Tears  falling  over  cheeks  ;  inflamed  eyeballs. — Inflammation  of  the  Eyes,  Page 
259. 

Teeth. — Grating  and  gnashing  of  teeth  following  a  swelling  on  the  neck  near 
the  larynx  that  is  extremely  painful.  (The  hair  on  this  swelling  soon  be- 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE  245 

comes  bleached,  stands  on  end,  and  is  brittle  and  hard);  groaning;  con- 
vulsions. The  diseased  hogs  die  within  a  few  days. — White  Bristle 
Page  271. 

Testicle  sack  is  greatly  enlarged  and  feels  dough-like  and  soft  to  the  touch.— 
Scrotal  Hernia. 

Thirst  (in  sows)  ;  poor  appetite;  dullness;  fever;  much  pain.— Inflammation  of 
the  Womb,  Page  259. 

Thirst  intense ;  inflamed  eyes  and  gummed  lids ;  bowels  tight  at  first  but  later 
loose  and  offensive;  tender  abdomen;  many  hogs  dying  within  a  few 
days ;  red  or  purple  spots  on  the  skin,  especially  on  the  abdomen,  inside 
the  legs  and  around  the  neck  and  ears ;  blood-stained  spots  on  the  snout ; 
snout  dry ;  disinclined  to  move  about ;  poor  appetite ;  weakness ;  shivering; 
high  fever ;  hiding  under  litter ;  weakness  of  hind  limbs  at  first  and  then 
of  fore  limbs. — Hog  Cholera  (acute),  Page  254. 

Throat  has  a  swelling  on  it  that  is  painful,  hot  and  hard;  there  is  wheezing; 
laborious  breathing;  swollen  tongue;  hoarse  grunting;  dry  snout;  brown- 
ish-red color  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth;  attempts  to  vomit; 
difficulty  in  swallowing  food ;  high  fever.  (This  disease  usually  comes 
as  an  epidemic  and  spreads  over  a  large  territory.) — Malignant  Angina, 
Page  260. 

Throat  inclined  to  fill  up ;  dry  and  hot  skin ;  difficulty  in  swallowing;  dry  feed ; 
spasmodic  coughing. — Sore  Throat,  Page  268. 

Throat  sore;  coughing;  rash  breaking  out  on  fourth  day;  some  sneezing; 
inflamed  eyes;  fever;  swollen  eye  lids;  fast  breathing. — Measles,  Page 
261 

Throat. — Soreness  and  swelling  of  glands  under  the  throat  followed  by  diffi- 
cult swallowing  and  breathing;  swelling  of  neck;  protruding  of  tongue 
from  mouth  covered  with  slaver. — Quinsy,  Page  265. 

Toes  have  blisters  or  tumors  between  them;  the  mouth  is  also  blistered; 
fever ;  perhaps  dullness. — Aphthous  Fever,  Page  248. 

Tongue  protruding  from  mouth  covered  with  slaver;  soreness  and  swelling 
of  glands  under  the  throat  followed  by  difficult  swallowing  and  breathing; 
swelling  of  neck. — Quinsy,  Page  265. 

Tongue  swollen;  wheezing;  laborious  breathing;  hoarse  grunting;  dryness  of 
snout;  brownish-red  color  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth;  trying 
to  vomit ;"  difficulty  in  swallowing  food ;  swelling  on  the  throat  that  is 
painful,  hot  and  hard;  high  fever.  (This  disease  usually  comes  as  an 
epidemic  and  spreads  over  a  large  territory.) — Malignant  Angina,  Page 
260 

Trembling  and  shaking;  bending  of  head;  unthrifty  condition.  The  pig  soon 
gets  stiff  and  tumbles  over,  struggling  a  short  time.  After  lying  quiet  for 
a  little  while  he  gets  up  and  acts  perfectly  well  until  another  sick  spell 
overtakes  him. — Fits  in  Pigs,  Page  254. 

Tumors. — Soft  tumors  found  near  the  outer  opening  of  the  large  bowel  that 
bleed  very  easily.  In  case  they  do  not  bleed  they  are  called  blind  piles. — 
Piles,  Page  264. 


246  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Turning  out  of  the  rectum. — Eversion  of  the  Rectum,  Page  254. 

Udder  tender  and  hard ;  loss  of  appetite ;  fever ;  shrinkage  in  milk. — Inflamed 
Udder,  Page  259. 

Urine  brown  in  color  and  scanty ;  bowels  either  too  loose  or  costive ;  craving 
for  filthy  food ;  loss  of  appetite ;  fits  (in  young  pigs)  ;  fever. — Indigestion, 
Page  259. 

Vomiting  a  discolored  or  bloody  fluid ;  convulsions ;  swaggering  and  unsteady 
gait;  much  pain ;  temperature  changing  from  feverish  heat  to  cold  chills  in 
rapid  succession;  very  red  mucous  membrane. — Apoplectic  Anthrax, 
Page  249. 

Vomiting  and  straining;  extreme  looseness  of  bowels. — Diarrhea  and  Scours, 
Page  252. 

Vomiting;  chills;  bloating;  pain;  fever;  quick  breathing;  tenderness  of  abdo- 
men ;  quickened  pulse. — Peritonitis,  Page  264. 

Vomiting  dark  colored  blood  containing  particles  of  food;  loss  of  appetite. — 
Blood  from  Stomach,  Page  250. 

Vomiting ;  manure  clay  colored ;  yellow  appearing  pig ;  poor  appetite ;  dullness ; 
constipation;  digestion  out  of  order. — Yellows,  P'age  272. 

Vomiting;  severe  distress  and'  uneasiness  coming  on  very  suddenly  some- 
times ;  some  bloating. — Obstruction  of  the  Bowels,  Page  263. 

Vomiting;  stiffness;  dullness;  fever;  fast  pulse;  poor  appetite;  thirst;  stupor; 
delirium. — Scarle^  Fever,  Page  267. 

Vomiting. — Vomiting,  Page  271. 

Walking  with  forefeet  far  in  advance  of  the  body  Continually  shifting  the 
weight  from  one  foot  to  another. — Founder  or  Sore  Feet,  Page  267. 

Weakness ;  continual  falling  away  of  flesh ;  diarrhea  or  constipation ;  dry,  per- 
sistent, harsh  cough ;  rapid  breathing,  especially  when  exercised.  (The 
symptoms  of  tuberculosis  have  no  very  decided  characteristics.  The 
tuberculin  test  is  a  surer  way  of  determining  the  presence  of  the  disease). — 
Tuberculosis,  Page  269. 

Wheezing;  laborious  breathing;  swelling  of  tongue;  hoarse  grunting;  dryness 
of  snout ;  brownish-red  color  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth ; 
trying  to  vomit ;  difficulty  in  swallowing  food ;  swelling  on  the  throat 
that  is  painful,  hot  and  hard ;  high  fever.  This  disease  generally  appears 
as  an  epidemic,  spreading  over  a  large  territory). — Malingant  Angina, 
Page  260. 

Yellow  appearance  of  pig;  poor  appetite;  dullness;  constipation;  clay  colored 
manure ;  vomiting ;  digestion  out  of  order. — Yellows,  Page  272. 

Yellowish  mucous  membrances;  constipation;  dullness;  some  cough;  generally 
comes  on  in  hot  weather. — Liver  Disease,  Page  260. 

Yellow  thin  manure ;  much  pain. — Diarrhea  and  Scours,  Page  252. 


TREATMENT  FOR  DISEASES  OF  SWINE. 


Castration. 


This  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  sex  organs  of  the  male  pigs. 

Castrating  Pigs. — Boar  pigs  should  be  castrated  when  they  are  from  two 
to  eight  weeks  old  so  that  they  may  recover  before  weaning  time.  The 
earlier  a  pig  is  castrated  the  easier  it  seems  to  be  for  him.  A  young  pig  can 
easily  be  castrated  by  one  person  if  no  help  is  at  hand.  To  do  this  stand 
the  pig  on  his  head  in  a  nail  keg  or  something  of  a  like  shape  to  prevent  his 
troublesome  resistance.  If  help  is  at  hand  the  assistant  may  hold  the  pig  in 
position.  It  is  usually  better  to  have  a  carbolic  acid  solution  (1  part  to  50 
of  water)  at  hand  in  which  to  dip  the  knife  and  hands  and  wash  off  the 
parts.  Many  pigs  come  through  an  operation  when  no  disinfectant  is  used 
but  of  course  there  is  danger  in  the  practice.  To  remove  the  testicles  place 
the  left  hand  under  the  sack  and  make  a  bold  incision  large  enough  for  the 
testicles  to  escape.  Separate  the  testicles  from  the  covering  and  tie  a  piece 
of  linen  thread  around  the  cord  to  prevent  bleeding.  Cut  the  cord  just  above 
the  thread.  If  the  thread  does  not  fall  off  it  can  be  pulled  off  in  a  few  days. 
If  flies  are  troublesome  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pour  some  coal  oil  into  and  over 
the  wound. 

Castrating  a  Boar. — A  boar  may  be  castrated  at  almost  any  convenient 
time.  The  operation  is  performed  the  same  as  for  pigs  unless  he  is  ruptured. 
If  this  is  the  case  the  hind  quarters  should  be  elevated  a  few  inches.  The 
sack  should  be  washed,  then  an  incision  made  to,  but  not  through  the  last 
covering  of  the  testicles.  This  should  be  taken  out  with  the  testicles  by 
separating  it  from  the  outer  covering,  forcing  the  testicles  out,  tying  a  string 
around  the  cord  about  three  inches  above  the  testicles,  and  cutting  off  the 
cord.  Be  sure  the  string  is  tight  enough  to  keep  the  bowels  from  slipping 
out  If  maggots  develop  in  a  wound  apply  buttermilk  or  turpentine. 

Castrating  a  Ridgling.— In  a  ridgling  the  testicles  are  not  in  their  proper 
place  but  are  in  the  body  of  the  animal,  just  behind  the  kidneys.  To  remove 
them  cut  him  in  the  side  about  midway  up  and  down  and  a  little  back  of  the 
last  rib.  Make  an  incision  large  enough  to  admit  the  whole  hand.  Through 
this  opening  the  seeds  can  be  easily  found  and  pulled  out. 

Giving  a  Hog  Medicine. 

In  drenching  a  hog  you  will  find  it  much  handier  to  use  a  rubber  hose 
instead  of  a  bottle  as  the  hog  may  break  the  latter.    The  hose  is  run  into  the 
back  part  of  the  mouth  and  the  medicine  poured  through  it.— 
Will  Saunders,  DeWitt,  la.,  Route  1. 

To  drench  a  hog  cut  the  toe  from  an  old  shoe,  put  the  shoe  into  1 
part  of  the  mouth  and  pour  the  medicine  in  at  the  top.     I  have  found  this 
very  handy.— Will  Saunders,  DeWitt,  la.,  Route  1. 


247 


248  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Conditioners  for  Hogs. 

Keep  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  air  slaked-lime  and  salt  before  the 
hogs.  This  will  help  keep  them  in  good  health.  Put  this  in  a  box  where 
they  cannot  get  on  to  it  with  their  feet. 

Charcoal  is  fine  for  keeping  the  hogs  in  good  health  if  kept  before  them 
continually.  (Good  charcoal  can  be  made  by  burning  corn  cobs  to  a  red  hot 
mass  and  throwing  water  upon  them.) 

Smartweed  tea  is  recommended  as  being  excellent  for  bringing  a  hog 
into  good  health  at  the  first  indication  of  anything  being  wrong.  To  make 
the  tea,  take  common  smartweed,  in  its  green  state,  press  out  the  juice,  and 
mix  it  in  the  swill.  Use  just  enough  to  make  them  sneeze  hard.  If  one 
desires  to  use  the  herb  the  year  around  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  gather  it 
when  in  bloom,  tie  it  into  bunches,  and  hang  it  in  a  dry,  sheltered  place.  A 
tea  can  then  be  made  by  boiling  the  weed.  The  smartweed  with  the  nar- 
rowest leaves  is  best  for  the  purpose. 

Keep  a  mixture  of  soft  coal  and  wood  ashes  before  the  hogs.  It  is  also 
well  to  add  a  little  salt.  To  last  ]00  hogs  about  4  months  use  about  5  tons  of 
so-called  slack  coal,  4  barrels  of  wood  ashes,  and  one  barrel  of  salt.  This 
can  be  kept  in  a  box  so  that  the  hogs  can  dig  it  out  from  the  bottom  thus 
keeping  them  out  of  it  with  their  feet. 

Acute  Indigestion. 

Too  fast  eating  of  strange  food;  overeating,  or  fermentation  of  food 
already  eaten ;  frozen  food  or  gas  develops  acute  or  crampy  attacks,  and  may 
cause  rolling,  or  loud  squealing.  Immediate  attention  should  be  given  as 
chronic  cases  develop  from  lack  of  attention. 

Treatment. — Give  a  tablespoonful  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  every 
hour  until  the  bloat  goes  down.  Follow  this  up  with  a  teaspoonful  of  ginger 
or  a  tablespoonful  of  powdered  charcoal  at  a  dose  in  the  feed  two  or  three 
times  daily.  Hot  water  is  used  by  many  farmers.  Proper  feeding  will  elim- 
inate most  of  the  diseases  in  stock.  Read  thoroughly  all  the  Animal  Hus- 
bandry Department. 

Aphthous  Fever. 

This  is  a  contagious,  eruptive  disease,  appearing  between  the  toes  or  in 
the  mouth  in  the  form  of  tumors.  Contagion;  improper  feeding,  and  filth 
are  the  causes. 

Symptoms. — Appearance  of  blisters  or  tumors  on  the  mouth  or  between 
the  toes;  fever;  perhaps  dullness. 

Treatment. — Isolate  the  diseased  hogs  and  dress  the  hoofs  with  sulphate 
of  copper  or  lime  wash. 

Thoroughly  mix  the  manure  with  lime  or  a  solution  of  one  teaspoonful 
carbolic  acid  to  a  cup  of  water  and  put  it  where  the  other  animals  will  not 
come  in  contact  with  it.  Chloride  of  lime  will  act  in  the  same  way.  Put 
some  strong  vinegar  in  the  drinking  water  of  the  affected  hogs  or  give  them 
skim  milk  to  drink. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  249 

Many  hogs  have  been  cured  of  aphthous  fever  by  a  solution  of  about  one 
tablespoonful  of  salicylic  acid  to  a  quart  of  water  freely  applied  to  the  dis- 
eased mouth  and  feet,  also  to  the  runs  and  houses. 

Apoplexy. 

This  is  an  ailment  that  occurs  in  fat  hogs.  It  is  caused  by  an  over- 
supply  of  blood  and  fat. 

Symptoms. — The  hog  first  acts  stupid  and  restless;  the  eyes  are  prom- 
inent and  blood-shot;  suddenly  the  hog  may  drop  as  though  hit  with  a  sledge- 
hammer and  the  limbs  become  straightened  and  stiff;  he  may  appear  dead 
but  for  his  heavy  breathing. 

Treatment. — If  the  attack  occurs  in  hot  weather  put  the  hog  in  a  cool 
place  and  supply  cold  packs  or  ice  to  the  head.  Keep  the  bowels  loose  by 
giving  epsom  salts  in  2  or  3-ounce  doses.  Feed  lightly.  Proper  care  in  feed- 
ing, especially  if  for  fattening,  will  prevent  too  high  a  blood  pressure.  A 
veterinarian  can  bleed  successfully  and  profitably  if  the  hog  is  ,a  good  one. 

Apoplectic  Anthrax. 

This  is  the  most  acute  form  of  Anthrax.  It  seldom  occurs  in  hogs  and 
when  it  does  occur  it  generally  terminates  so  quickly  that  nothing  can  be 
done  for  the  patient.  The  raiser  usually  comes  just  in  time  to  see  the  hog 
fall  down  and  die,  or  to  find  him  dead  before  he  even  knew  the  animal  was 
sick.  This  disease  is  caused  by  contagion ;  filthy  quarters  and  grounds ;  poor 
feeding ;  and  over  exposure  to  heat  and  cold. 

Symptoms. — Pain;  swaggering  unsteady  gait;  temperature  changing 
from  feverish  heat  to  cold  chills  alternately  and  in  rapid  succession;  very 
red  mucous  membrane :  vomiting  a  discolored  or  bloody  fluid ;  and  convul- 
sions. In  some  cases  a  carbuncle  may  make  its  appearance  shortly  before 
death. 

Treatment. — We  can  suggest  no  cure  for  this  disease.  About  all  that 
can  be  done  is  to  isolate  the  diseased  hog  if  possible  as  a  protection  to  the 
rest  of  the  herd.  The  body  should  be  burned  or  buried  under  a  few  inches  of 
quick  lime  and  the  premises  thoroughly  disinfected.  Some  farmers  write 
they  have  had  success  with  this  ailment  by  bleeding  the  hog. 

Blind  Staggers. 

Over-feeding;  filthy  surroundings;  and  over-exposure  in  changeable 
weather  cause  congestion  of  bowels  and  blood  rushes  to  the  brain  too  swiftly. 

Symptoms.— Hog  acting  stupid ;  running  into  objects ;  running  in  a  cir- 
cle ;  falling  over  and  straightening  out  legs ;  frothing  at  the  mouth ;  and  rapid 
laborious  breathing. 

Treatment.— Put  the  hog  in  a  dry,  clean  pen.  Make  it  as  comfortable 
as  possible.  Feed  lightly.  Many  farmers  draw  a  little  blood  which  relieves 


250  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

the  pressure.  Put  cold  water  or  ice  packs  to  the  head  and  give  from  2  to  3 
ounces  of  epsom  salts.  Repeat  the  dose  of  salts  when  necessary.  Give  a 
teaspoonful  of  calomel  immediately.  Next  slit  the  skin  on  the  head  clear  to 
the  bone  above  the  eyes  and  put  salt  and  pepper  in  the  opening.  If  this  does 
not  set  up  a  counter  irritation,  apply  a  strong  liniment  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  head  and  around  the  base  of  the  ears.  Feed  lightly.  Epsom  salts  may 
be  given  in  2  or  3-ounce  doses  in  place  of  calomel  to  loosen  the  bowels. 

Blood  from  Stomach. 

Injuries  to  the  stomach,  from  bunting,  kicking,  or  when  a  pig  swallows 
a  bone  or  some  other  hard  substance  that  causes  bleeding. 

Symptoms. — Vomiting  blood  (The  blood  should  be  examined  and  if  it 
contains  particles  of  food  and  is  dark  colored  it  comes  from  the  stomach.) 
and  a  loss  of  appetite.  There  may  be  a  coughing  of  blood. 

Treatment. — Take  a  teaspoonful  of  cold  water  and  into  this  put  about 
ten  drops  of  aconite  and  give  as  a  dose  every  two  or  three  hours. 

Bronchitis. 

As  this  disease  is  usually  fatal  great  care  should  be  taken  with  young 
pigs  to  see  that  they  are  not  exposed  to  wet  and  cold,  especially  after  being 
overheated;  dusty  quarters,  lungworms,  or  condition  of  the  atmosphere  may 
cause  it. 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  appetite;  cough;  discharge  of  mucus  from  mouth 
(sometimes  from  the  nose  too);  fast  difficult  breathing;  holding  head  out; 
fever;  weakness  in  limbs  and  stumbling. 

Treatment. — Give  good  quarters  and  a  well  balanced  ration.  Feed  lightly 
during  the  acute  stage  of  the  disease.  Plasters  on  chest  will  give  relief  from 
pain.  Steaming  is  often  used.  Give  from  one-half  to  two  ounce  doses  of 
castor  oil  and  allow  the  animal  to  inhale  steam.  Hold  a  vessel  containing 
one-half  per  cent  boiling  hot  water  solution  of  tar  disinfectant  or  turpentine 
close  to  the  hog's  nostrils,  and  allow  the  patient  to  inhale  the  steam  for  about 
ten  minutes.  Do  this  three  or  four  times  daily.  Throw  a  light  cloth  over  the 
head  of  the  hog  and  over  the  pan  to  make  the  steam  go  into  his  nostrils. 

Cancer  of  the  Tail. 

Sometimes  during  pigging  time  a  sow  develops  sort  of  a  cancerous  con- 
dition of  the  tail  which  may  cause  the  tail  to  fall  off  if  it  is  not  given  proper 
care. 

Treatment. — Reduce  the  feed  of  the  sow  for  ten  or  twelve  days  after 
pigging  and  give  a  little  sulphur  (afeout  a  teaspoonful)  two  or  three  times  a 
week.  A  mixture  of  turpentine  and  lard  has  given  good  results  as  an  applica- 
tion as  has  kerosene  oil  with  several  drops  of  carbolic  acid  added. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  251 

Colds. 

The  causes  are  improper  care,  exposure  to  cold  and  wet ;  sudden  changes 
in  temperature;  and  filth. 

Symptoms. — Discharges  of  mucus  from  the  nose;  coughing;  heaving  at 
the  flanks,  and  loss  of  appetite. 

Treatment. — Put  the  pig  in  a  warm,  dry  pen.  Feed  loosening  food  such 
as  warm  slop  and  vegetables.  A  full  tablespoonful  of  tar  is  good.  Steaming 
with  tar  is  also  beneficial.  Moisten  some  mustard  flour  with  vinegar  and  apply 
it  to  the  chest  and  throat. 

Colic. 

Eating  indigestible  or  frozen  food,  too  much  exposure,  and  lack  of  range 
cause  colic. 

Symptoms. — Hog  sits  on  its  haunches;  moves  head  from  side  to  side; 
rolls ;  changes  position  frequently ;  grunts  and  sometimes  bloats. 

Treatment. — Drench  the  hog  with  some  warm  lard.  Give  the  hog  a 
teaspoonful  of  soda  in  a  quart  of  buttermilk.  Repeat  in  ]/2  hour  if  necessary. 
Put  soda  in  buttermilk  just  before  giving.  Mix  a  tablespoonful  each  of  ginger 
and  common  baking  soda.  Dissolve  this  in  warm  water  and  use  as  a  drench. 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs. 

This  is  caused  by  stagnation  of  blood  in  the  lungs;  keeping  fat  pigs  in 
close,  filthy  quarters.  Feeding  too  much  fat-making  food  is  often  a  cause. 

Symptoms. — Great  distress ;  head  held  down  and  mouth  open ;  weak 
pulse ;  cold  extremities ;  pig  cannot  stand ;  in  some  cases  blood  running  out 
of  nose.  Hard  breathing  is  heard. 

Treatment.— Act  promptly  to  prevent  this  disease  developing  into  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs.  Put  the  patient  in  warm,  comfortable  quarters  and  give 
stimulants.  Either  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  or  l/2  teaspoonful  of  camphor 
in  a  glass  of  milk  is  good.  Put  warm  woolen  blankets  on  the  body  and  rub 
the  legs  briskly.  It  is  good  to  rub  a  solution  of  1  pint  witch-hazel  and  1  tea- 
spoonful  of  capsicum  on  the  legs.  Ammonia  will  act  best  in  the  beginning 
and  the  stimulants  later. 

Constipation. 

Constipation  keeps  the  bowels  from  doing  their  normal  work.  Such  a 
condition  shows  that  something  is  radically  wrong  in  the  swineyard.  Bulk 
food,  lack  of  exercise,  a  cold  or  other  common  causes  bring  on  constipation. 

Symptoms. — Passing  of  dry  dung  in  compact,  ball-like  masses.  Some- 
times crampy  pains  and  loss  of  appetite. 

Treatment.— Give  the  hog  exercise  and  a  more  cooling  loosening  diet. 
Green  feed  or  soft  mashes  are  good.  Give  stimulants  and  tonics  if  hog  is  weak. 
2^  drams  of  green  soap;  \y2  oz.  of  linseed  oil  and  15  oz.  boiled  water  divided 


252  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

into  five  parts  and  injected  into  the  rectum  every  half  hour  is  good;  1  fluid 
ounce  of  syrup  of  buckthorn  is  often  used.  Prepare  a  bran  mash  with  hot 
water  and  feed  it  to  the  constipated  hogs. 

Diarrhea  and  Scours. 

Extreme  looseness  of  bowels.  Decayed  foods;  too  much  food;  an  in- 
flamed and  irritated  condition  of  stomach  and  intestines ;  unsanitary  condi- 
tions; improper  action  of  liver;  over-exercising  on  a  hot  day;  all  cause  loose- 
ness in  bowels. 

Symptoms. — Extreme  looseness  of  bowels.  Much  distress  is  shown  and 
dung  is  yellow.  An  acid  condition  is  shown  by  straining  and  vomiting. 

Treatment. — It  is  important  to  remove  the  cause.  Do  not  feed  filthy  food. 
Keep  the  place  clean.  A  paste  of  flour  and  water  is  good  and  healthy.  Castor 
oil  is  healing  and  can  be  given  with  good  results.  Plenty  of  water  acts  as  a 
cleanser.  1  grain  of  rhubarb  and  10  grains  of  calcium  carbonate  may  be  used. 
Any  good  astringent  remedy  will  have  the  proper  effect.  Put  a  tablespoonful 
of  air-slaked  lime  in  the  slop  of  the  pigs  about  3  times  a  week.  Give  the 
sow  the  amount  of  sulphur  that  will  stand  on  a  5  cent  piece,  in  a  little  milk  or 
upon  a  small  piece  of  bread.  Give  1  hour  before  feeding. 

Dysentery. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bowels.  It  is 
accompanied  by  frequent  passing  of  feces  containing  mucus  and  blood.  There 
is  too  much  acid  in  the  system. 

Eating  rotten  meat  or  vegetables ;  lying  in  cold  damp  places ;  inactive 
liver ;  worms,  and  constipation  are  many  causes. 

Symptoms. — Uneasiness ;  poor  appetite ;  dullness ;  colic  pains ;  little  fever 
and  bloat ;  bad  smelling  feces  passing  off  dry  at  first,  but  later  thin  feces  con- 
taining blood  or  mucus. 

Treatment. — Give  big  dose  of  castor  oil,  followed  by  calomel  and  25  drops 
of  camphor.  Give  starch  water.  A  teaspoonful  of  ginger  is  good  in  the  last 
stages  of  their  sickness.  Give  three  times  daily  until  relieved. 

Eating  of  Pigs. 

Treatment. — Keep  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sulphur,  salt,  wood  ashes 
and  soft  coal  before  the  sows.  Do  this  just  before  farrowing  time.  She  likes 
lime  and  eats  the  little  pigs  for  that  in  their  bones.  If  a  sow  is  eating  her 
pigs,  try  feeding  her  pork  which  is  well  salted.  This  is  expensive  and  it  is 
far  better  to.  prevent  rather  than  to  cure. 

Enteritis. 

Often  improper  food  is  taken  into  the  lower  bowels  and  develops  an 
inflamed  condition  caused  by  colds;  constipation;  and  drinking  filthy  water. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  253 

Symptoms. — Some  indications  are  loss  of  desire  to  eat ;  fever ;  great  thirst ; 
much  distress ;  diarrhea  with  feces  showing  red ;  weakness ;  and  the  mouth  is 
dry  and  hot. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  pig  on  liquid  food  for  a  few  days  and  apply  water 
and  mustard  to  the  belly  each  day.  Any  good  cathartic  can  be  given  to  move 
the  bowels  and  after  the  action  ceases  to  be  caustic  a  healing  remedy  like 
olive  oil  should  be  given. 

Epilepsy. 

Overfeeding  on  rich  food  when  the  hogs  are  not  receiving  enough  fresh 
air  and  exercise ;  exposure  to  changeable,  stormy  weather ;  injuries ;  faulty 
circulation ;  and  other  ailments  cause  thick  blood  or  inflammation. 

Symptoms. — First  symptoms ;  dullness ;  hog  is  not  inclined  to  move ;  and 
acts  dull;  blood-shot  eyes;  constipated  bowels;  and  hard  and  quick  pulse. 
Later  symptoms — poor  appetite;  delirium  (the  hog  runs  about  wildly,  gen- 
erally in  a  circle.  He  seems  blind  and  runs  into  things.  The  breathing  seems 
rapid  and  laborious). 

Treatment. — Remove  the  cause  if  possible.  If  the  attack  occurs  in  hot 
weather  put  the  hog  in  a  cool  shed.  Move  the  hog's  bowels  by  giving  a  dose 
of  from  2  to  3  ounces  of  epsom  salts.  Tincture  of  aconite  in  four  drop  doses 
should  be  given  every  three  hours.  Caution:  Do  not  give  aconite  if  it  makes 
the  animal  vomit.  Rub  a  strong  liniment  on  the  neck  twice  daily  at  the  point 
where  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  meet.  Apply  ice  packs  to  the  neck  until  the 
pig  improves.  Another  good  remedy  is  to  give  a  teaspoonful  of  calomel  im- 
mediately. Next  slit  the  skin  on  the  head  clear  to  the  bone  above  the  eyes 
and  put  salt  and  pepper  in  the  opening.  If  this  does  not  set  up  a  counter 
irritation,  apply  a  strong  liniment  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  around 
the  base  of  the  ears. 

Erysipelas. 

This  is  a  very  frequent  contagious  disease  of  swine,  and  is  known  by  the 
inflammation  of  the  skin  and  tissue  adjoining.  Wounds  on  the  skin  admit  the 
germs  to  the  blood  cells.  People  are  very  much  affected  by  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — First  symptoms :  weakness ;  dullness ;  unsteady  gait ;  refusal 
of  food;  rooting  in  bedding;  often  burying  of  head  or  whole  body  in  straw; 
lying  down  more  than  usual;  changeable  temperature;  chills,  with  feverish 
heat  following ;  fast  pulse ;  constipated ;  excrements  passed  being  dark  colored 
and  hard;  efforts  to  vomit  in  some  cases.  Later  and  more  pronounced 
symptoms;  red  spots  on  inside  of  legs,  on  abdomen,  breast  and  neck;  these 
spots  soon  turn  to  swelling;  small  blisters  on  parts  of  swollen  surface ;  increas- 
ing fever ;  labored  breathing ;  later  the  hind  quarters  of  the  hog  are  paralyzed, 
convulsions  set  in,  and  death  results  if  the  disease  is  allowed  to  run  this  far. 

Treatment. — Open  the  bowels  with  salts  or  castor  oil.  Feed  milk  and 
eggs.  Rub  parts  with  hot  milk.  Open  the  blisters  and  apply  a  solution  of  1 
teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  in  1  pint  of  water  to  them.  Give  the  hog  lots  of 
clear,  fresh  water. 


254  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Eversion  (Turning  Out  of  the  Rectum). 

Poorly  kept,  neglected  pigs  are  subject  to  protrusion  of  the  rectum. 
Straining  in  pig  birth,  diarrhea  or  constipation  cause  eversion. 

Treatment. — Make  the  patient  as  comfortable  as  possible  and  give  a  diet 
of  easily  digested  food.  Empty  the  protruding  part,  clean  it  with  warm  water, 
gently  return  the  part  and  push  it  up  a  little  ways  inside  the  opening.  The 
finger  should  be  oiled,  with  nails  short  and  smooth. 

Fits  in  Pigs. 

Improper  food  regulation,  worms  and  lack  of  exercise  on  account  of  small 
pens  develop  poor  bowel  conditions  and  cause  fits  to  pigs. 

Symptoms. — Poor  appearance  is  first  shown ;  then  the  animal  shakes  and 
trembles  violently.  The  pig  gets  stiff,  stumbles  and  struggles  a  short  time. 
In  a  little  while  he  gets  up  and  acts  well  but  later  has  another  attack. 

Treatment. — Proper  attention  and  a  wide  range  will  do  a  lot  toward 
proper  regulation  of  health.  Put  y2  teaspoonful  of  turpentine  in  y2  cup  of 
linseed  oil  and  give  in  two  doses.  Repeat  it  each  day  if  necessary  for  several 
days.  Ginger  in  a  mash  is  good  to  relieve  worms. 

Gum  Mouth. 

This  disease  manifests  itself  in  eruptions  of  the  small  sacs  in  the  cheeks, 
lips  and  tongue.  It  is  a  comparatively  rare  disease,  but  care  should  be  taken 
to  keep  it  from  spreading.  Contagion  or  filthy  condition  of  premises  cause  this 
disease. 

Symptoms. — Animal  eats  very  little;  restlessness ;  a  little  fever;  distress- 
ful and  staring  expression  of  the  eyes,  slavering  and  gnashing  of  teeth.  Later 
yellowish  white  pimples  that  are  full  of  pus  come  on  the  cheeks,  lips  and 
tongue.  These  pimples,  though  yellowish-white  at  first,  soon  change  to  brown 
and  then  to  black.  There  is  a  little  swelling  at  the  base  of  each  pimple. 

Treatment. — First  isolate  the  sick  animal  to  prevent  spreading  of  the  con- 
tagion. Put  him  in  a  dry,  clean  place.  Put  two  ounces  of  alum  into  three 
pints  of  water  and  apply  to  the  affected  parts  three  or  four  times  a  day.  Make 
a  hot  liquid  food  of  milk  and  meal  to  feed  the  patient  if  he  lacks  strength. 
When  the  pimples  appear,  it  will  usually  be  best  to  open  them  with  a  sharp 
edged  spoon  (a  tin  spoon  is  good)  and  remove  their  contents  thoroughly. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  pig  to  swallow  the  pus.  Also  the  operator 
must  not  allow  any  of  the  pus  to  touch  him  as  it  is  dangerous  should  there  be 
a  break  in  his  skin.  Apply  a  weak  carbolic  acid  solution  to  the  sores  after 
removing  the  pimples. 

Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague. 

Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague  are  so  nearly  alike  that  they  will  be 
treated  as  the  same  disease.  The  difference  in  them  can  only  be  told  by 
examination  of  the  dead  body.  In  many  states,  the  ravages  of  this  disease 
cost  the  farmers  over  a  million  dollars  annually.  Hogs  come  down  with  hog 
cholera  from  about  seven  to  fourteen  days  after  being  exposed. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT 


255 


Ulcer*  on  the   Lurgc   Inte«tine 
of   •   Chofff»   Hot 


Method    of    Burning    «_  Hog 
from    ('holer* 


256  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Causes. — Hog  cholera  is  believed  to  be  caused  by  a  germ  or  microbe  so 
small  that  it  cannot  be  seen  with  the  most  powerful  microscopes  available. 
This  germ  is  present  in  the  blood  and  excretions  of  sick  hogs,  especially  in 
the  urine.  Whenever  these  germs  come  in  contact  with  a  hog,  they  begin  their 
work  immediately  and  this  makes  hog  cholera  highly  contagious. 

Predisposing  Causes. — There  are  many  factors  which  make  a  herd  more 
susceptible  to  hog  cholera  such  as :  insanitary  condition  of  hog  lots,  improper 
feeding,  cold  or  damp  sleeping  places,  confinement,  privation,  and  dirty  feed- 
ing and  drinking  troughs.  In  fact,  anything  that  lowers  the  vitality  of  the 
herd  helps  to  make  hogs  easy  victims  to  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — Hog  cholera  manifests  itself  in  both  an  acute  and  chronic 
form.  In  the  former,  the  animals  die  within  a  few  days  while  in  the  latter 
they  may  live  for  several  weeks.  In  its  acute  form,  the  main  symptoms  are: 
loss  of  appetite,  sluggishness,  weakness,  disinclination  to  move,  shivering,  high 
fever,  hiding  under  litter,  lying  on  belly,  weakness  of  hind  limbs  at  first  and 
later  of  front  limbs,  inflamed  eyes  and  gummed  lids,  red  or  purplish  blotches 
on  the  skin,  especially  on  the  abdomen,  inside  the  legs  and  around  the  neck 
and  ears,  rapid,  weak  pulse,  dry  snout  covered  by  blood-stained  spots,  intense 
thirst,  bowels  tight  at  first  but  later  loose  and  offensive,  tender  abdomen,  and 
often  a  hard  cough. 

In  the  chronic  form  of  the  disease,  the  symptoms  are  similar  to  those 
found  in  an  acute  case  such  as :  sluggishness  and  disinclination  to  move  when 
disturbed,  coughing  when  suddenly  aroused,  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh,  growing 
so  weak  they  walk  with  an  uncertain  gait,  sometimes  staggering,  hind  legs 
particularly  weak,  eyes  inflamed  and  lids  gummed  together,  profuse  diarrhea. 

The  symptoms  of  hog  cholera  are  not  particularly  characteristic  and  only 
such  as  might  be  observed  in  any  severe  disease.  But  if  these  symptoms 
appear  in  several  or  all  of  the  hogs  in  a  herd  and  the  disease  is  seen  to  be 
contagious,  cholera  is  probably  present,  though  the  only  sure  way  of  telling 
is  by  holding  a  post-mortem  examination. 

Simple  Method  of  Examining  a  Hog  After  Dying  From  Hog  Cholera.— 
Lay  the  hog  on  his  back  and  make  an  incision  through  the  skin  and  under- 
lying fat.  Begin  at  the  throat  and  cut  the  entire  length  of  the  body.  Next  cut 
under  the  skin  covering  the  chest  so  as  to  expose  the  ribs.  Now  sever  the 
ribs,  beginning  at  their  lower  border  about  one  or  two  inches  on  either  side 
o'f  the  breast  bone  and  cutting  toward  the  head,  and  remove  them  entirely. 
Next  make  crosswise  cuts  from  the  first  long  incision  toward  each  leg  so  that 
the  skin  may  be  laid  back  on  both  sides  of  the  body. 

Caution.— Do  not  injure  the  organs  in  opening  the  carcass.  Also  avoid 
having  any  open  cuts  or  bruises  in  your  hands  where  germs  might  enter. 
Cholera  germs  will  not  affect  man  but  the  body  of  a  hog  may  be  full  of  other 
germs  that  might  prove  dangerous. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  257 

Important  Symptoms  Found  in  Post-Mortem. 

Red  spots  on  the  skin. 

Bloody  spots  in  the  kidneys,  on  the  surface  of  the  heart,  in  the  lungs,  or 
the  outer  and  inner  surface  of  the  stomach  and  the  intestines. 

An  enlarged  spleen.  (The  spleen  is  found  on  the  right  har.d  side  as  one 
views  the  hog  on  his  back.  It  lies  a  little  below  and  to  the  ~2ght  of  the 
stomach). 

Reddened  lymphatic  glands.  (These  glands  are  easily  recognized  by  the 
farmer.  The  ones  to  be  examined  are  in  the  fat  immediately  under  the  skin 
of  the  abdomen  near  the  center  between  the  hind  legs). 

Ulcers  on  the  inner  lining  of  the  large  intestine. 

All  of  the  above  indications  are  seldom  found  in  a  hog  that  has  died 
from  cholera.  In  acute  cases  the  hog  may  show  only  an  enlarged  spleen  or  a 
bloody  condition  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  while  in  chronic  cases  there  may 
only  be  the  button-like  ulcers  in  the  large  intestine. 

Preventive  Treatment. — Hog  cholera  is  easier  to  prevent  than  it  is  to 
cure.  The  preventive  measures  to  be  followed  are :  Keep  all  newly  purchased 
stock  away  from  the  herd  for  at  least  thirty  days,  give  the  hogs  clean,  dry 
sleeping  places,  keep  the  feeding  and  drinking  troughs  clean,  scatter  slaked 
lime  about  the  lots  occasionally  and  disinfect  the  troughs  and  buildings  with 
a  compound  solution  of  cresol  (U.  S.  P.)  or  carbolic  acid,  do  not  put  hogs 
that  have  recovered  from  cholera  with  susceptible  ones  for  at  least  two 
months  after  complete  recovery  and  then  dip  them  in  a  disinfectant  solution 
first  (compound  solution  of  cresol  1  to  100),  protect  the  hogs  from  hot,  reeking 
beds  of  manure,  keep  away  from  all  places  where  the  disease  exists,  a  man 
may  carry  the  germs  on  his  shoes ;  keep  all  persons  away  from  your  place  who 
have  been  where  the  disease  exists,  separate  the  well  and  diseased  animals; 
burn,  or  if  buried  cover  with  lime,  all  dead  bodies;  do  not  leave  slop  or  water 
in  the  troughs  for  the  hogs  to  wallow  in ;  keep  the  animals  in  good  vigorous 
health. 

Many  farmers  have  kept  their  hogs  from  getting  cholera  by  using  one  of 
the  following  receipts; 

Two  pounds  each  of  Copperas,  Sulphur  and  Madder,  one-half  pound  each 
of  Saltpeter  and  Black  Antimony,  and  two  ounces  of  Arsenic.  This  quantity 
is  enough  for  100  hogs.  It  is  put  in  the  slop  allowing  one  small  tablespoonful 
to  each  full  grown  hog  once  a  day.  This  receipt  was  recommended  by  a 
prominent  farmer  in  Illinois  who  writes  that  every  time  he  tried  it  he  had 
about  fifty  head  of  hogs  and  that  not  one  of  them  died  that  could  walk  to  the 
trough  and  drink  the  preparation. 

Thoroughly  dissolve  one  pound  of  Copperas  in  three  gallons  of  water. 
Apply  this  as  a  wash  to  the  affected  hogs  whenever  the  skin  begins  to  look 
scaly  and  rough,  or  of  a  dark  red  color.  Have  the  wash  about  milk-warm  and 
apply  by  dipping  the  hog  into  a  barrel  containing  the  solution  or  rubbing 


258  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

the  solution  on  the  hog  until  thoroughly  wet.  Apply  the  wash  every  day  until 
the  scales  are  removed.  Begin  to  use  it  before  the  alarming  symptoms  of 
purging  and  vomiting  set  in. 

For  hog  cholera  the  following  prescription  is  the  most  effective  remedy 
I  have  ever  seen  tried  writes  a  man  who  should  know:  Flour  of  Sulphur  8 
ounces,  pulverized  charcoal  4  ounces,  pulverized  capsicum  2  ounces,  pulverized 
rhubarb  3  ounces,  carbonate  of  iron  8  ounces,  pulverized  golden  seal  1  ounce. 
Mix  thoroughly  when  ready  for  use.  Put  in  air  tight  package  to  preserve 
the  strength. 

Preventing  Hog1  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague  by  Vaccination. — A  great 
many  hogs  may  be  saved  by  treating  the  herd  with  a  properly  prepared  serum. 
There  are  two  methods  of  treatment  as  follows : 

Serum  Inoculation. — In  this  method  the  hogs  which  are  to  be  protected 
are  injected  on  the  inside  of  the  hind  leg  with  a  dose  of  serum  alone.  This 
injection  will  serve  to  protect  them  for  several  weeks  and  in  case  those  treated 
become  exposed  to  hog  cholera  during  this  time,  they  will,  so  far  as  experi- 
ments have  shown,  be  protected  for  life. 

Simultaneous  Inoculation. — The  same  serum  is  used  in  this  method  as 
is  used  in  the  serum  inoculation.  However,  in  addition  to  the  serum,  there 
is  injected  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body  a  small  amount  of  blood  taken 
from  a  hog  sick  with  cholera.  This  treatment  confers  a  lasting  and  permanent 
immunity  upon  the  hogs. 

The  length  of  time  that  protection  is  desired  should  govern  one  in  his 
choice  of  the  method  of  vaccination  to  be  used,  remembering  that  the  "Serum 
inoculation"  protects  the  hogs  only  for  a  few  weeks  unless  exposed,  while 
the  "Simultaneous  inoculation"  protects  them  for  life.  Vaccination  should 
be  used  mainly  as  a  preventative.  Little  success  can  be  expected  in  herds 
that  are  badly  affected  before  the  vaccinating  is  done. 

In  many  states  the  law  permits  the  farmer  to  inoculate  his  own  hogs 
which  if  done  temporarily,  needing  repetition,  will  save  considerable  for  the 
farmer.  It  is  safe  if  directions  given  with  the  serum  are  followed  closely. 

If  you  find  a  case  of  cholera  in  a  herd  bend  every  effort  at  once  to  stamp 
out  the  infection  and  prevent  its  spreading.  Careless,  indifferent  treatment 
is  of  no  use  in  hog  cholera.  Isolate  the  affected  animals  and  disinfect  the 
premises  thoroughly.  Feed  a  very  light  ration  of  thin  slop  of  shorts  or  other 
ground  feed.  Powdered  copper  sulphate  can  be  given  in  the  drinking  water 
and  feed.  Eight  ounces  of  the  powdered  drug  may  be  dissolved  in  one  gallon 
of  warm  water  and  a  pint  of  the  solution  added  to  every  ten  gallons  of  water 
and  slop  fed.  Diet  the  whole  herd,  feeding  only  what  they  will  clean  up 
quickly.  Do  not  leave  anything  in  troughs  for  the  hogs  to  wallow  in,  disin- 
fect the  troughs  thoroughly  after  each  feeding  and  turn  them  upside  down. 
Burn  all  dead  bodies  or  bury  them.  In  burying,  cover  the  bodies  with  a  few 
inches  of  quicklime.  At  the  end  of  an  outbreak,  clean  and  disinfect  the 
premises  thoroughly. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  259 

Indigestion. 

Insufficient  change  of  diet,  lack  of  exercise,  or  eating  poor  food  are  the 
usual  causes  of  indigestion  in  all  animals. 

Symptoms.— Bowels  either  "bound  up"  or  too  loose;  no  desire  to  eat: 
animal  coughs ;  urine  is  dark  colored  and  stinted.  The  hog  usually  has  a  slight 
fever. 

Treatment. — In  loose  bowels  an  astringent  should  be  given  and  then  a 
dose  of  raw  linseed  oil  will  have  a  healing  effect.  A  dose  of  castor  oil  is  from 
one  to  two  ounces  and  is  good.  If  bowels  are  costive,  give  from  one  to  two 
ounces  of  salts.  An  injection  of  warm  water  helps.  Coffee  is  good  to  prevent 
sickness  of  the  stomach. 

Inflamed  Eyes. 

Exposure  to  heat;  cold  or  sunshine;  foreign  bodies  entering  the  eyes; 
and  living  pens  where  there  are  foul  vapors  develop  bad  eyes. 

Symptoms. — Inflamed  eyeballs  and  tears  falling  over  the  cheeks. 

Treatment. — Examine  the  eyes  to  remove  any  foreign  substance  and  put 
the  pig  in  a  dark  pen.  Wash  the  eyes  with  hot  water  and  apply  boric  acid 
and  water  (as  much  acid  as  the  water  will  dissolve).  If  a  scum  comes  over 
the  eyes,  blow  some  calomel  into  them  once  each  day. 

Inflamed  Udder. 

Exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  poor  care,  and  loss  of  pigs  leaving  milk  unused 
develops  sore  and  caked  udders. 

Symptoms. — Fever,  a  hard  udder  and  drying  up  of  bag;  no  desire  to  eat. 
This  may  ruin  the  sow  for  further  breeding  so  a  good  pigging  or  farrowing 
pen  should  be  used. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  bowels  loose  with  Glauber's  salts.  Wash  the  udder 
with  hot  water  several  times  daily.  Apply  camphorated  vaseline  to  the  udder 
once  each  day.  Lard  is  a  good  application  to  apply  freely. 

Inflamed  Womb. 

Many  times  a  sow  is  not  assisted  properly  in  pigging;  or  is  kept 'in  an  ill- 
smelling,  damp  pen  after  pigging;  or  the  rectum  is  turned  out.  Cleanliness 
is  essential  in  treatment  of  all  animals. 

Symptoms. — Dullness;  no  desire  to  eat;  fever;  and  much  distress. 

Treatment. — The  fever  should  be  reduced  by  giving  saltpeter,  and  the 
womb  washed  out  with  boracic  acid  and  warm  boiled  water.  Put  plenty  of 
the  acid  in  the  water.  It  is  very  good  for  cleansing  and  healing.  To  inject 
the  solution  a  fountain  syringe  will  be  found  well  adapted  to  this  work. 

Kidney  Worms. 

Many  worms  affect  the  different  parts  of  an  animal.  Passage  of  them 
or  the  eggs  show  their  presence,  as  does  also  a  poor  appearance.  Worm- 


260  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

seed  is  often  given ;  a  teaspoonful  of  turpentine  to  a  gallon  of  liquid  food  is  used 
by  many  farmers.  Kerosene  dips  will  give  good  results ;  kerosene  given  inter- 
nally in  small  doses  have  brought  improvement  in  the  animal. 

Lameness. 

Bruises,  cuts,  lack  of  good  bone  building  food,  and  kicks  cause  lameness. 
Constipation  develops  a  contracted  action  of  the  muscles  often  which  makes 
an  animal  lame.  Plenty  of  wood  ashes  and  salt  or  soft  coal  kept  before  the 
hogs  will  keep  them  from  being  lame.  Lump  sulphur  is  used  by  many  hog 
raisers. 

Lice. 

9 

On  account  of  the  bristles  it  is  easier  to  treat  for  lice  than  on  other  animals 
with  more  hair.  It  is  also  easy  to  rid  a  hog,  in  fact  to  rid  the  premises  of  lice, 
so  no  place  should  have  them.  Clean  pens  are  not  infected  by  lice.  White- 
washing often  brings  relief.  Tobacco  washes  are  often  used.  Kerosene 
rubbed  or  brushed  on  with  a  broom  gives  good  satisfaction.  The  buildings 
must  be  fumigated.  Formaldehyde  applied  with  a  sprayer  is  practical.  Sul- 
phur burned  carefully  is  a  common  remedy. 

Liver  Diseases. 

There  are  so  many  diseases  caused  by  too  much  or  improper  food,  and 
too  little  exercise  that  diagnosing  a  disease  is  hard  for  an  inexperienced  man. 
Following  closely  the  symptoms  will  give  good  results.  Lack  of  exercise; 
over-feeding  on  rich  foods,  and  ill-kept  surroundings  cause  liver  disease. 

Symptoms. — Coughing  up  irregular  matter  as  well  as  bad  digestion  and 
sluggishness  are  always  seen  at  this  time. 

Treatment. — One  should  attend  to  the  treating  of  this  disease  promptly 
and  carefully  to  prevent  other  and  perhaps  more  serious  complications  f-rom 
starting.  See  that  the  hog  has  clean  quarters  and  good  clean  water  to  drink. 
Relieving  the  bowels  gives  the  best  results.  Salts  or  ginger  and  soda  (1  tea- 
spoonful  each)  in  warm  water,  or  buttermilk  have  a  good  effect.  Linseed  oil 
heals  the  bowels  in  excessive  action. 

Malignant  or  Gangrenous  Angina. 

Description. — Malignant  Angina  is  a  form  of  Anthrax  that  affects  swine 
quite  frequently,  generally  appearing  as  an  epidemic  and  spreading  over  a 
large  territory.  It  has  its  principal  seat  in  the  throat.  Angina  may  be  present 
with  other  diseases  especially  malignant  erysipelas.  Contagion;  filth;  expo- 
sure and  poor  condition  cause  it. 

Symptoms. — Laborious  breathing ;  wheezing ;  swelling  of  tongue ;  hoarse 
grunting ;  dryness  of  snout ;  brownish-red  color  of  the  mucous  membranes  of 
the  mouth ;  trying  to  vomit ;  difficulty  in  swallowing  food ;  a  swelling  on  the 
throat  that  is  painful,  hot  and  hard  (this  swelling  sometimes  extends  as  far 
as  the  lower  surface  of  the  chest  and  presents  a  crimson  or  red  appearance 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  261 

at  first  followed  by  reddish  lead-gray  and  then  purple),  and  a  high  fever. 
The  difficulty  in  breathing  increases  until  the  animal  may  even  die  of  suffoca- 
tion. He  may  make  desperate  attempts  to  catch  a  little  air  by  opening  the 
mouth  and  protruding  the  swollen  tongue.  The  hog  has  a  high  temperature 
at  first  but  in  the  later  stages  of  the  disease  the  temperature  may  go  below 
normal. 

Preventive  Treatment. — Giving  a  little  carbolic  acid  in  the  drinking  water 
or  feeding  unripe  sour  apples  or  sour  buttermilk  may  help  prevent  your  hogs 
from  getting  this  terrible  disease  when  it  is  in  the  neighborhood.  The  treat- 
ment to  be  at  all  effective  in  this  disease  must  be  begun  when  the  first  symp- 
toms make  their  appearance.  First  give  an  effective  emetic  of  from  three  to 
twenty  grains  (depending  on  the  size  and  age  of  the  animal)  of  powdered 
White  Hellebore  or  of  Tartar  Emetic.  The  former  is  probably  more  reliable. 
Give  this  medicine  in  a  little  milk  if  the  hog  will  drink  it.  Other  ways  of 
giving  it  are  in  pieces  of  boiled  potato  or  a  pinch  of  flour  and  water  in  the 
form  of  pills. 

Caution. — Do  not  give  these  as  a  drench.  Repeat  the  dose  if  the  hog 
does  not  vomit  in  about  twenty  minutes.  This  treatment  may  be  followed 
with  doses  of  calomel,  saltpeter,  sulphate,  or  soda  to  advantage.  Many  people 
find  that  injections  of  the  following  solution  made  through  the  skin  into  the 
swollen  parts  of  the  neck  at  various  places  give  better  results  than  anything 
else;  Carbolic  acid  y*  teaspoonful,  glycerine  1  teaspoonful  and  water  1  tea- 
cupful.  Blood  letting  is  sometimes  satisfactory  if  resorted  to  in  time.  If  done 
too  late  it  only  hastens  death. 

Mange — Scab — Itch. 

This  is  an  ailment  of  the  skin  caused  by  a  parasite  and  easily  carried  from 
one  hog  to  another. 

Symptoms. — Severe  itching;  large  sores  caused  from  rubbing;  scabs  on 
the  skin. 

Treatment. — In  treating  mange,  purify  all  objects  around  the  animals 
such  as  sties  and  rubbing  places  by  covering  them  with  lime  or  chloride  of 
lime.  Wash  the  hog  with  a  decoction  of  Tobacco  (4  teaspoonfuls  of  tobacco 
to  1  pint  of  water)  or  Caustic  Potash  (2  teaspoonfuls  Caustic  Potash  to  1 
quart  water)  ;  or  concentrated  vinegar.  A  couple  of  days  following  a  thorough 
application  of  one  of  above  washes,  scrub  the  hog  well  with  soap  and  water 
and  apply  the  following: 

Mange  Ointment. — Melt  \*/2  pounds  of  lard  and  l/2  pound  of  turpentine 
together.  Add  1  pound  of  Flowers  of  Sulphur  to  this  and  mix  well.  When 
cool  rub  2  ounces  of  strong  Mercurial  Ointment  into  the  mixture.  This  can 
be  done  on  a  stone  slab.  Glover's  Mange  cure  is  a  very  well-known  remedy. 

Measles. 

This  is  a  contagious  disease  in  hogs  that  is  quite  common.  It  is  similar 
to  measles  in  people  and  may  be  carried  back  and  forth  between  the  house 
and  pens. 


262 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Symptoms. — In  many  cases  the  animal  sneezes  and  coughs,  but  if  the 
case  is  light,  no  sickness  may  be  observed.  In  bad  cases  there  is  a  loss  of 
appetite,  a  rash  breaks  out  in  about  four  days  (this  is  more  easily  seen  on 
white-skinned  hogs),  the  throat  is  sore,  the  eyes  inflamed,  the  temperature 
high,  and  the  pulse  is  rapid.  The  disease  begins  to  go  away  about  the  sixth 
or  seventh  day.  Be  very  careful  of  relapses.  They  develop  more  serious 
diseases. 

Treatment. — Practically  all  the  hogs  need  when  they  have  measles  is 
good  care  and  protection  from  storms,  filth  and  wet.  They  seldom  need 
medicine  unless  it  is  something  to  check  the  cough  or  diarrhea  or  to  loosen 
the  bowels.  Milk  and  red  pepper  is  good,  also  an  egg  fed  to  the  hog.  If  the 
hog  shows  weakness  strong  lye-like  coffee  will  revive  it. 


A  group  of  well  grown  and  well  finished  hogs. 

Morbid  Appetite. 

Bad  foods  usually  have  sour  material  which  makes  an  excess  of  acid  in 
the  stomach.  This  condition  causes  the  hog  to  lose  its  desire  to  eat  and  causes 
it  to  lose  flesh.  Regulate  the  feed.  Put  in  closed  pen  for  a  while. 

Treatment. — Put  the  hog  on  a  light  diet  which  is  easily  digested.  Many 
farmers  give  a  mixture  of  charcoal,  ginger,  and  common  baking  soda.  Egg 
shells,  sour  milk,  soft  coal,  and  even  soft  wood  and  acorns  neutralize  the  con- 
dition. 

Nasal  Catarrh. 

During  a  dry  summer  catarrh  is  prevalent  in  both  animals  and  people. 
Dust,  chaff,  grass  seeds,  and  golden  rod  pollen  have  a  great  effect  on  animals 
in  developing  catarrh  and  asthma. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  263 

Symptoms. — Membrane  of  the  nose  swollen  and  dry;  sneezing;  no  desire 
to  eat ;  discharge  and  inflammation  of  the  nose. 

Treatment. — Give  the  affected  hog  15  grains  of  saltpeter  and  2  drams  of 
ginger.  Follow  this  with  two-grain  doses  of  quinine  several  times  daily.  The 
animal  should  be  given  good  care.  Strong  salt  water  cleanses  the  stomach. 
Smartweed  may  be  given.  Mint  leaves  are  good  for  clearing  out  the  passages. 

Navel  Hernia. 

Sometimes  a  pig  lays  on  a  sharp  stick  or  falls  upon  erne  and  when  it  rises 
the  bowel  or  part  of  one  comes  through.  Also  in  farrowing  a  projection  of 
the  bowels  through  an  opening  is  not  uncommon.  Reopening  of  an  improper 
tied  navel  often  permits  a  bowel  to  come  partly  through. 

Symptoms. — A  puffy  soft  bunch  at  the  navel  which  can  be  pressed  back 
through  the  opening  into  the  body.  If  the  rupture  is  small,  it  seldom  causes 
trouble  and  needs  nothing  done  to  it  unless  it  stops  the  circulation.  A  pro- 
trusion is  dangerous  however  as  the  bowel  itself  might  be  punctured  and  the 
inflammation  set  up  may  develop  complications. 

Treatment. — Place  the  pig  on  its  back  and  press  the  bowel  and  covering 
back  into  place.  Pick  up  the  hide  and  put  two  wooden  pins  which  have  been 
boiled  and  sterilized  through  it  at  right  angles  to  each  other  and  close  to  the 
abdomen.  Tie  a  string  around  back  of  these  pins  and  close  to  the  body.  Do 
not  tie  the  string  too  tight.  This  operation  causes  the  skin  to  soon  unite. 
The  loose  skin  drops  off  in  about  ten  days  and  the  pig  is  well.  Many  farmers 
have  explained  this  and  it  is  an  easy  and  safe  method  if  just  proper  common 
sense  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  infection. 

Obstruction  of  the  Bowels. 

Eating  bones,  rooting  in  gravel,  too  hard  coal,  bad  food  and  clusters  of 
worms  attached  to  bowel  lining  is  called  obstruction  of  the  bowels. 

Symptoms. — Sometimes  the  trouble  starts  quickly  and  severe  pain  results. 
It  is  a  serious  ailment  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  bowels 
from  becoming  punctured  from  the  inside.  In  such  instances  there  can  be 
no  cure  and  the  animal  dies. 

Treatment. — Giving  soapy  water  causes  vomiting  and  may  bring  up  the 
obstruction.  Linseed  oil  or  any  medicine  that  may  -grease  the  passages  will 
help  to  release  the  obstacle.  An  injection  of  warm  soapy  water  will  help. 

Paralysis. 

Severe  straining  of  the  back  resulting  from  sorrie  accident  while  young  or 
being  stepped  upon  by  another  animal  affects  the  spinal  column  and  develops 
a  helpless  condition  due  to  loss  of  the  muscles.  The  base  of  the  brain  is  often 
affected;  blows  on  the  loins ;  mistakes  in  feeding;  or  other  ailments  also  cause 
it. 


264  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Treatment. — Put  the  hog  in  comfortable  quarters  where  he  will  not  be 
disturbed.  Feed  on  soft,  sloppy  food.  Sour  milk  is  good.  Keep  the  bowels 
loose  with  injections  of  warm  water  or  from  two  to  three  ounce  doses  of 
Glauber's  salts.  Breaks  in  the  spine  are  not  curable,  but  if  killed  immediately 
the  hog  will  be  good  for  meat.  If  the  cause  is  known  to  be  a  strain  of  the 
back,  use  cold  application  on  the  back  for  several  days,  or  apply  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  mustard  and  water  to  the  affected  animal's  back  each  day.  Equal  parts 
of  lard,  ammonia  and  turpentine  make  an  excellent  liniment  to  apply  to  the 
back  of  a  hog  suffering  with  paralysis  and  have  been  recommended  by  farmers 
in  Ohio  and  elsewhere. 

Paralysis  of  the  Retina. 

People  and  animals  are  often  affected  by  the  dilation  of  the  pupil  of  the 
eye  which  may  cause  blindness.  It  is  often  an  ailment  of  the  digestive  organs 
due  to  constipation,  high  blood  pressure  or  intestinal  parasites  which  really 
cause  clogged  bowels. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  hog  in  a  dark,  clean  pen  with  good  ventilation. 
Pumpkin  seed  tea  is  good  for  worms  and  will  remove  one  of  the  worst  causes 
of  the  paralysis.  Cathartics  should  also  be  given. 

Peritonitis. 

When  any  article  taken  into  the  intestines  makes  an  internal  rupture,  an 
inflamed  condition  of  the  membrane  lining  the  abdominal  cavity  usually  takes 
place  and  blood  poisoning  often  follows.  The  mortification  or  hardening  is 
almost  incurable.  Injuries  such  as  kicks  from  horses  or  bunts  from  cattle; 
puncturing  of  the  stomach ;  severe  chills  and  other  diseases,  cause  the  internal 
injury.  It  may  follow  castration  or  farrowing. 

Symptoms. — Pain ;  bloating ;  fever ;  tenderness  of  the  stomach ;  vomiting : 
and  quickened  pulse.  The  indications  are  very  plain  and  the  attention  that 
must  be  given  is  considerable. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  strength  of  the  animal  up  with  milk  mashes  or,  in 
severe  cases,  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia.  Proper  care  by  a  veterinarian  at 
the  first  signs  of  this  ailment  will  get  the  better  results. 

Piles. 

These  are  soft  bright  red  tumors  found  in  or  near  the  outer  opening  of 
the  large  bowel.  They  usually  bleed  very  easily.  Sometimes  they  are  called 
fluid  piles  because  there  is  no  bleeding.  Sitting  back  on  damp  muddy  floors 
and  cold  ground  are  common  causes. 

Treatment. — Add  some  tannic  acid  to  cold  water  and  use  as  an  injection 
Give  a  cathartic  of  Glauber's  salt  or  castor  oil.  When  it  is  thought  best  to 
open  the  tumors  and  let  out  the  impure  blood,  use  a  thin  sharp  knife.  Hot 
applications  may  be  then  applied  or  anodyn  wash  is  good.  Injections  of 
slippery  elm  juice  or  mucilage  are  considered  good. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  265 

Pleurisy. 

Many  hogs  as  well  as  other  animals  catch  slight  colds  and  the  membrane 
which  lines  the  chest  and  covers  the  lungs  becomes  inflamed  and  is  known  as 
pleurisy.  It  may  develop  into  pneumonia.  Hogs  should  not  sleep  in  cold 
beds,  or  be  exposed  to  drafts  or  winds  when  warm  or  injured.  The  air  pas- 
sages may  be  easily  affected. 

Symptoms. — Fever;  coughing;  uneasiness;  fast  breathing;  the  back  is 
bent  and  pressure  on  side  causes  flinching. 

Treatment. — Give  the  hog  dry,  clean  quarters.  In  case  the  bowels  are 
too  tight,  give  him  two  ounces  of  Glauber's  salts  in  warm  water.  In  case  the 
animal  does  not  urinate  freely,  give  a  teaspoonful  and  saltpeter  three  or  four 
times  daily.  Jamaica  Ginger  is  fine  for  the  inflammation  and  may  be  given 
in  tablespoon  doses  several  times  a  day.  It  is  also  very  good  as  a  stimulant. 

Pneumonia  or  Lung  Fever. 

A  slight  cold  due  to  exposure  often  develops  into  more  serious  diseases 
and  an  inflamed  condition  of  the  lungs  is  the  most  common.  Light  blood 
often  aids.  Corn  fed  properly  gives  much  heat  and  prevents  many  chances  of 
exposure. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  chills,  then  fever  develops;  quickened  and  la- 
borious respiration ;  loss  of  appetite ;  severe  coughing  and  pain  tell  of  the 
presence  of  inflammation. 

Treatment. — Give  the  hogs  clean,  warm,  comfortable  quarters  and  access 
to  saltpeter  once  a  day ;  15  drops  of  aconite  will  reduce  fever.  Give  strong 
coffee  to  prevent  vomiting. 

Quinsy. 

This  is  a  disease  that  appears  frequently  in  hogs.  It  is  generally  confined 
to  fat  hogs  or  those  highly  fed.  It  is  rapid  in  its  course  and  often  fatal.  While 
at  first  it  is  easily  prevented  and  taken  care  of,  later  it  is  very  hard  to  treat 
successfully. 

Symptoms. — Soreness  and  swelling  of  glands  under  throat  followed  by 
difficult  swallowing  and  breathing;  protruding  of  tongue  from  mouth  covered 
with  slavor.  There  may  be  spots  on  the  glands  comparing  with  tonsils  in 
people. 

Treatment. — At  the  start,  give  an  active  emetic,  such  as  4  grains  of 
tartar-emetic  (potasio-tartrate  of  antimony);  6  grains  of  White  Hellebore; 
and  6  grains  of  ipecacuanha.  Mix  and  throw  into  the  mouth  or  give  in  the 
feed.  If  the  hog  can  eat  give  2  or  3  ounces  of  castor  oil  to  clear  the  bowels. 
If  the  hog  has  great  difficulty  in  breathing,  put  an  active  blister  on  the  throat 
and  give  injections  often.  If  the  animal  can  drink  water,  dissolve  a  teaspoon- 
ful of  Nitre  and  Salammoniac  in  it.  If  a  hog  has  a  case  of  quinsy,  split  the 
neck  open  on  each  side  of  the  throat  so  it  will  bleed  freely,  then  swab  the 


266  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

throat  well  with  turpentine.  Also  make  the  hog  swallow  from  1  to  2  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  turpentine.  This  can  be  put  in  the  swill  when  the  patient  can 
drink.  Enough  turpentine  poured  on  corn  to  make  it  oily  is  a  good  preventive. 

Rheumatism. 

Colds  settling  in  the  limbs  and  the  loss  or  drying  up  of  some  of  the  joint 
fluid  is  thought  to  cause  this  ailment  in  animals  and  people.  Some  hogs  seem 
to  be  more  disposed  to  it  than  others  and  when  an  exciting  cause  arises  they 
become  affected  immediately.  It  is  very  common,  yet  hard  to  treat. 

Symptoms. — Indisposition  to  move ;  languor ;  dullness  ;  extreme  lameness 
in  one  or  more  limbs;  swelling;  heat;  or  tenderness  of  a  tendon,  joint  or 
bunch  of  muscles.  The  soreness  may  shift  from  one  joint  to  another. 

Treatment. — Give  the  pigs  warm,  well-littered  houses  to  go  into  any  time 
they  choose.  Feed  steamed  or  boiled  food  and  sour  milk  so  as  to  get  a  bowel 
action.  Good  liniments  are  usually  used  and  can  be  made  at  home  from 
vinegar,  eggs,  turpentine  and  even  lard  added.  Give  a  tablespoonful  of  cod- 
liver  oil  to  each  pig  once  or  twice  a  day  in  the  feed.  Cod-liver  oil  often  not 
only  cures  rheumatism,  both  chronic  and  acute,  but  also  greatly  improves  the 
condition  of  the  pigs. 

Rickets. 

This  is  a  condition  in  hogs  caused  by  lack  of  proper  foods  containing 
lime  salts  and  affects  the  bones.  Cold,  damp  buildings,  improper  feeding, 
infection  and  weak  constitutions  are  causes  of  the  lack  of  health.  The  ribs 
and  long  bones  of  the  legs  are  most  affected.  The  bones  become  thicker  than 
usual  and  the  gait  is  stiff  and  painful.  Discharges  as  in  catarrh  of  the  stomach 
take  place. 

Treatment. — Correct  improper  conditions,  giving  plenty  of  sunshine, 
fresh  air,  exercise,  food,  and  tonics  are  the  best  remedies.  Plenty  of  lime  salts 
in  the  foods,  lime  in  the  drinking  water  and  bone  meal,  will  strengthen  the 
bones. 

Ringworm. 

This  may  break  out  over  the  body  but  is  uncommon  in  hogs.  It  appears 
in  the  form  of  rings  and  the  hair  drops  from  the  skin  in  ringlike  patches,  the 
center  of  the  patches  becoming  dry  and  the  edges  moist.  Sweet  oil  is  good 
if  well  rubbed  in;  kerosene  will  cleanse  it  thoroughly.  Or  apply  iodine  with 
a  brush.  Sulphur  and  lard  keeps  the  sore  soft  and  helps  it  heal. 

Scaly  Skin  Disease. 

Exposure  to  heat  and  cold  during  all  seasons  causes  skin  to  become  frost- 
bitten and  crack,  often  making  pus-like  sores  which  scale  over. 

Symptoms. — Appearance  of  pimples  from  which  fluid  oozes.  This  fluid 
hardens  and  forms  scales  which  come  off. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  267 

Treatment. — Give  good  dose  of  salts  and  feed  light  food  with  lots  of  sour 
milk  for  several  days.  Sulphur  and  lard  or  buttermilk  and  kerosene  will 
cleanse  the  skin  thoroughly.  Sweet  oil  or  carbolic  salve  which  can  be  made 
in  bulk  at  low  cost  is  fine.  Many  farmers  save  a  lot  of  money  by  getting  the 
ingredients  of  well-known  salves,  ointments  and  patent  medicines  and  mixing 
them  up  for  their  own  personal  use.  In  another  section  we  give  many  prac- 
tical ones. 

Scarlet  Fever. 

Many  of  the  diseases  with  a  rash  are  confused  with  one  another;  as,  for 
instance,  scarlet  fever  and  measles  are  similar.  About  a  week  is  required 
for  relief.  It  will  spread  from  contact  with  other  animals  that  have  the 
disease,  or  with  man ;  dirty  pens  or  low  vitality  in  pigs  makes  them  sus- 
ceptible. 

Symptoms. — It  may  be  distinguished  in  many  ways  and  sluggishness, 
slight  lameness,  some  fever,  and  poor  appetite  with  increasing  thirst  are  the 
more  common  indications. 

Treatment. — Many  pigs  pull  through  a  case  of  scarlet  fever  without  any 
special  treatment.  The  affected  animal  should  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  herd  and  given  good  clean  quarters.  Salts  may  be  given  if  the  bowels  are 
tight  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  get  the  bowels  too  loose.  Quinine  and 
ginger  should  be  given  about  three  times  daily  when  the  pig  is  weak.  Spray 
the  throat  several  times  a  day  with  a  solution  made  by  dissolving  a  handful 
of  salt  in  a  quart  of  water.  This  will  relieve  the  soreness.  A  lemon  juice 
spray  is  also  good. 

Snuffles.  ' 

So  many  hogs  are  exposed  to  cold  rains  and  weather  that  they  take  and 
develop  colds  which  are  really  continuous.  It  may  run  into  more  serious  a 
distemper  which  usually  results  in  death.  Such  animals  should  be  killed  and 
buried  or  burned. 

Symptoms. — Discharges  of  mucus  from  the  nose ;  discharges  of  blood  (in 
severe  cases)  ;  snuffling,  chills ;  and  some  constipation. 

Treatment. — Put  the  pig  in  a  warm,  dry  and  clean  pen.  Protect  him  from 
further  exposure.  Avoid  over-feeding  and  feed  loosening  foods  to  keep  the 
bowels  in  good  condition.  Clear  out  the  nose  by  washing  it  with  a  solution 
of  listerine  and  water  several  times  a  day.  If  the  bowels  are  costive,  give 
from  two  to  four  ounces  of  epsom  salts.  Plenty  of  salt  should  be  kept  in  the 
pen. 

Sore  Feet  or  Founder. 

Confinement  in  pen  with  hard  cement  floors  and  drinking  cold  water  after 
overfeeding  with  heavy  grain  often  develop  a  case  of  founder.  The  sensitive 
linings  of  the  feet  seem  to  act  in  sympathy  with  the  abused  lining  of  the 
bowels. 


268  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Symptoms. — Lifting  the  fore  feet  and  placing  them  down  easily  and 
farther  apart  than  usual  is  a  good  indication  of  sore  feet.  Often  twitching  of 
the  tail. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  bowels  opened  with  salts,  laxative  foods  like  tur- 
nips, beets,  and  green  fodder.  If  sores  come  on  the  feet  walk  the  pig  through 
a  trough  containing  blue  vitriol  water.  Butter  of  antimony  is  good  for  healing 
these  sores.  If  the  pig  gets  foot  sore  in  the  winter,  apply  hot  packs,  but  if  he 
goes  sore  in  the  summer  allow  the  pig  to  run  where  he  can  stand  on  clay 
ground. 

Sorehead. 

Sometimes  there  is  soreness  back  of  ears  and  a  discharge  of  yellew 
matter.  This  matter  gives  off  a'  very  diagreeable  odor  and  is  not  pleasant  to 
treat.  Thorough  cleansing  with  warm  water  and  an  application  of  turpentine 
will  aid  in  healing.  Kerosene  oil  and  lard  will  make  a  good  salve  to  keep  away 
flies  and  prevent  poisoning.  A  teaspoonful  of  sulphur  can  be  given  in  the 
feed  each  day.  It  dries  up  the  sores. 

Sore  Throat. 

This  is  a  disease  common  in  all  animals  and  people.  The  causes  are  com- 
mon as  well  as  symptoms  and  treatments.  Wet  feet  or  weak  lungs,  and  lying 
in  cold  water  or  snow  with  poor  ventilation  usually  brings  it  on. 

Symptoms. — Spots  come  in  throat,  head  fills  up  and  there  is  a  smothered 
cough.  Swallowing  is  hard  and  there  is  loss  of  appetite  and  slow,  restless 
movements. 

Treatment. — Three  ounces  of  castor  oil  or  linseed  oil  should  be  given  to 
move  the  bowels.  Doses  of  alum,  several  times  a  day,  act  well  if  given  dur- 
ing the  first  stages  of  soreness. 

Stunted  Pigs. 

Most  young  pigs  are  affected  with  worms  which  cause  indigestion  and  the 
food  strength  is  not  utilized  by  the  system.  Growing  ceases  and  small 
scrawny  pigs  are  the  result.  Improper  nourishment  will  also  stunt  them 
They  eat  as  much  as  a  growing  pig  so  should  not  be  kept  in  this  condition  any 
longer  than  is  necessary.  A  teaspoonful  of  turpentine  is  one  of  the  best  worm 
remedies  and  it  is  best  to  remove  the  cause  right  at  the  start.  A  milk  diet 
will  often  give  the  proper  nourishment.  Oil  meal  or  some  good  conditioning 
powder  with  plenty  of  salt  will  tend  to  give  the  best  results.  Many  farmers 
get  good  results  by  using  a  little  castor  oil  and  kerosene. 

Thumps. 

This  ailment  attacks  fat  young  pigs ;  they  do  not  have  sufficient  exercise 
and  are  affected  with  worms.  This  may  be  a  common  condition  and  can  be 
prevented  by  proper  regulation  of  food,  plenty  of  beans  and  cowpeas  fed  to 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  269 

the  sow  before  farrowing.  Coughing,  especially  in  the  morning  when  the  pig 
comes  from  his  bed ;  jerking  of  body,  and  the  pig  may  fall  to  the  ground. 
Cold  water  and  rubbing  will  aid  in  recovery. 

Treatment.— In  case  the  pigs  are  too  fat,  the  sow  should  be  taken  from 
them  for  a  while  during  each  day.  Proper  and  plenty  of  exercise  will  do  wonders 
towards  keeping  the  litter  in  good  condition.  At  the  first  sign  of  thumps  all 
of  the  pigs  should  be  treated  the  same,  as  they  are  all  subject  to  the  same 
condition.  Eggs  and  milk  with  bran  added  and  thrown  into  the  trough  will 
help  much  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease.  Pigs  that  are  given  lumps  of  tar 
several  times  will  react  satisfactorily. 

Mix  a  little  tartar-emetic  with  the  drinking  water  or  with  the  milk  for 
from  five  to  ten  days. 

Tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis  in  hogs  is  closely  associated  with  the  same  malady  in  cattle. 
It  is  caused  by  germs  or  bacteria  and  affects  the  various  organs  of  swine; 
feeding  unpasteurized  skimmed  milk;  allowing  hogs  to  run  behind  tubercu- 
lous cattle  and  feed  upon  the  undigested  grain  in  the  manure;  feeding  un- 
cooked carcasses  of  other  animals  that  contain  tuberculosis  germs ;  consump- 
tive attendants ;  and  eating  carcasses  of  tuberculous  fowls. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  tuberculosis  have  no  very  decided  char- 
acteristics. In  intestinal  tuberculosis  there  is  often  a  general  disturbance  of 
the  digestive  functions  and  diarrhea  or  constipation  may  result.  In  advanced 
tuberculosis  of  the  lungs  there  is  a  dry,  persistent,  harsh  cough  and  rapid 
breathing,  especially  when  exercised.  The  cough  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  that  caused  by  lung  worms.  In  severe  cases  of  the  disease  there  may 
be  continued  falling  away  and  weakness.  Most  cases  of  tuberculosis  are  not 
recognized  until  the  hogs  are  killed.  In  cases  where  the  disease  can  not  be 
told  by  the  symptoms  exhibited,  the  tuberculin  test  is  recommended  which 
makes  it  possible  to  detect  the  disease  in  its  early  stages  and  to  stamp  it  out 
by  killing  the  affected  animals. 

Tuberculin  Test.— The  intradermal  method  of  using  the  tuberculin  test 
has  given  excellent  results  on  hogs.  Full  credit  for  the  perfecting  of  this  test 
should  go  to  the  Animal  Industry  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  State  Ex- 
periment Stations.  In  this  method  two  drops  of  tuberculin  is  used.  This  is 
prepared  by  evaporating  away  two-thirds  of  the  volume  of  the  tuberculin 
obtained  from  the  Bureau  mentioned  above  for  the  subcutaneous  tuberculin 
testing  of  cattle.  It  is  injected  into  the  skin,  not  under  it,  near  the  base  of 
one  of  the  hog's  ears.  If  the  hog  is  affected  with  tuberculosis,  the  ear  will 
swell  near  where  the  injection  was  made  in  about  forty-eight  hours  and  will 
remain  swollen  from  10  to  12  days.  If  there  is  no  infection  no  reaction  will 
take  place. 

Treatment. — By  applying  the  tuberculin  test  when  tuberculosis  in  sus- 
pected, the  diseased  hogs  can  be  determined  and  killed  before  the  whole  herd 
is  affected  and  the  hog  raiser  can  thus  clean  up  his  herd  with  as  little  loss 
as  possible.  After  removing  the  diseased  animals  the  place  may  be  thor- 


270 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


,/r 


Fig,   2, 


J.     Intestines,   lungs,   livtr   and  spleen    of   a   hoe   affected   wiih    Tsib^r 
ruiosis, 

2.     Uogs    t«sted    for   Taberculosin.     Tht   enlargtmi'nis   shttw    ri-u-    result 
of  a  positive  reaction. 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE— TREATMENT  271 

oughly  disinfected  by  cleaning  up  all  loose  dirt,  tearing  out  all  decayed  wood- 
work, and  scrubbing  the  walls  of  the  houses  with  hot  water.  Next  a  coat  of 
lime  containing  a  good  disinfectant  should  be  applied  to  the  walls  and  in  all 
dark  places  on  the  premises. 

Preventive  Treatment. — The  prevention  is  to  remove  the  cause,  by  pas- 
teurizing milk,  cooking  meat,  etc.,  that  is  fed  to  the  hogs. 

Vomiting. 

Sometimes  the  food  a  hog  picks  up  has  an  irritating  action  on  the  stomach 
and  causes  it  to  throw  up  its  food.  Weakness  may  also  be  the  cause.  People 
often  give  strong  coffee  or  a  little  camphor  in  water.  Ginger  and  soda  are 
fine,  all  of  these  can  easily  be  given  to  the  hog.  Mint  leaves  or  smartweed 
thrown  into  the  pen  will  help  in  regulating  the  stomach. 

Warts. 

Warts  often  develop  in  skin  surfaces  that  have  been  bruised  and  filled 
with  dirt.  Bruising  it  continuously  causes  it  to  grow  larger. 

Treatment. — A  small  wart  can  be  cut  off  with  a  small  silk  thread.  A 
drop  of  carbolic  acid  will  sear  over  the  wound  and  keep  it  from  bleeding. 
Acetic  acid  or  nitric  acid  applied  to  the  wart  only,  and  not  the  surrounding 
skin,  will  cause  it  to  go  away  and  the  surface  will  become  smooth.  Warts 
should  be  cared  for  when  starting. 

White  Bristle — Anthrax  Carbuncle. 

This  disease  does  not  often  appear  in  hogs. 

Symptoms. — High  fever ;  carbunculous  swelling  that  is  extremely  painful 
on  the  neck  near  the  larynx.  (The  hair  on  this  swelling  is  soon  bleached  and 
stands  on  end.  It  is  brittle  and  hard,  therefore,  it  is  called  White  Bristle). 
In  the  later  stages  of  the  disease,  the  following  symptoms  are  prominent :  grat- 
ing and  gnashing  of  teeth;  laborious  breathing;  groaning;  and  convulsions. 
The  diseased  hogs  die  within  a  few  days. 

Treatment. — The  general  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  Malignant  Angina. 
As  a  local  treatment,  destroy  the  carbuncle  as  soon  as  possible  by  burning  it 
with  a  red  hot  iron  or  by  applying  concentrated  acid.  The  treatment  must  be 
prompt  and  the  animal  must  be  given  close  attention  to  secure  the  best  results. 

Worms. 

Practically  all  hogs  and  animals  have  worms.  .Hogs  eat  the  remains  of 
dead  animals  which  contain  the  worm  eggs.  These  soon  develop  inside  the 
hog  the  same  as  bots  in  horses.  Constipation  and  improper  digestion  make 
it  very  easy  for  worms  to  live  in  a  hog's  stomach.  Once  a  hog  gets  sick  it 
is  hard  to  cure. 


272  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Symptoms. — Stomach  pains,  scratching  extremities,  rubbing  up  against 
posts  and  barns  or  buildings  while  giving  a  pleasant  feeling  is  also  done  in 
trying  to  rid  the  intestines  of  the  clinging  worms.  Often  worms  are  passed 
in  the  feces  and  clusters  come  forth. 

Treatment. — Cleanse  the  bowels  with  cathartics  and  injections  and  then 
give  a  tea  made  from  boiled  pumpkin  seeds.  This  is  one  of  the  finest  remedies. 
The  whole  system  seems  to  respond  and  practically  every  worm  is  removed. 
Then  the  proper  thing  is  to  keep  everything  clean.  Tobacco  is  given  by  many 
farmers  while  salt  and  ashes  are  kept  in  the  pen  by  others.  Turpentine  added 
to  the  swill  is  always  recognized  as  one  of  the  surer  reliefs  for  worms  in  all 
forms  and  all  animals.  A  teaspoonful  in  a  gallon  of  liquid  food  will  do  good. 
Give  several  times  a  week,  is  the  usual  statement. 

From  5  to  8  grains  of  calomel  and  3  to  5  grains  of  santonin  for  every  hun- 
dred pounds  live  weight.  Make  a  powder  of  this  mixture  large  enough  for 
from  ten  to  fifteen  hogs.  Divide  the  herd  into  bunches  of  this  number.  Place 
ground  feed  in  a  trough  and  sprinkle  one  of  the  powders  over  the  feed.  Dose 
the  hogs  in  the  morning  after  keeping  them  off  feed  over  night.  A  remedy 
for  worms  in  hogs  is  to  feed  nothing  for  one  day  and  then  to  a  100-pound 
hog  give  a  tablespoonful  of  a  mixture  of  half  turpentine  and  half  raw  linseed 
oil  or  castor  oil.  The  dose  for  smaller  pigs  should  be  proportionately  reduced. 
Always  keep  a  mixture  of  wood  ashes  and  salt  where  the  hogs  can  get  it,  using 
about  a  half  bushel  of  ashes  to  five  pounds  of  salt.  Cob  ashes  will  do  just  as 
well. 

Wounds  and  Cuts. 

Apply  one  teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  teacupful  of  water  to  the 
wound  or  cut  several  times  daily,  or  put  one  teaspoonful  of  coal-tar  disin- 
fectant in  a  teacupful  of  water  and  apply  to  the  wounded  part  each  day. 

Yellows — Jaundice. 

The  urinary  organs  of  a  pig  may  become  affected  and  the  bile  becomes 
distributed  in  the  system,  causing  poor  action  and  impure  blood. 

Symptoms. — Yellow  appearance  of  the  pig ;  poor  appetite ;  sluggishness  ; 
poor  bowel  action  and  vomiting. 

Treatment. — Hot  vinegar  cloths  over  the  kidneys  or  hot  water  containing 
soda  and  ginger  will  be  found  good. 

Give  doses  of  from  three  to  four  ounces  of  linseed  oil  to  open  the  bowels 
and  from  3  to  6  grains  of  calomel  to  keep  them  open  and  to  act  upon  the  liver. 


THE  RURAL 


POULTRY  RAISING 


BY 


FLORENCE  FORBES 


Member  National  American  Poultry  Association 
Executive  Committee ;  Secretary-Treasurer 
Alabama  Branch ;  First  Lady  Granted  a  License 
to  Judge  all  Varieties  of  Poultry;  Judge  at 
San  Francisco,  Birmingham,  Montgomery, 
Memphis  and  many  other  large  shows. 


THE  PEOPLES  EFFICIENCY 

PUBLISHING  CO 

CLEVELAND.O. 


Copyright    1917 
By 

The  People's  Efficiency  Publishing  Co. 
CLEVELAND,  OHIO 


AUTHORS'  PREFACE 

book  has  been  written  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  the  farmer  and  poultry 
raiser  with  a  convenient  and  effective  source  of  information  by  the  use  of  which 
he  may  greatly  multiply  his  poultry  profits. 

Very  few  realize  the  magnitude  of  the  poultry  industry.  There  are  about 
600,000,000  fowls  in  the  United  States,  or  about  100  for  each  farm.  These  are  valued 
at  about  $250,000,000.  The  egg  production  is  nearly  2,000,000,000  dozen  annually,  valued 
at  nearly  $500,000,000.  In  Canada  the  poultry  is  valued  at  about  $10,000,000  and  the 
annual  egg  production  at  about  $20,000,000 — an  industry  second  only  to  the  corn  crop 
and  one  which  each  year  amounts  to  enough  to  build  two  Panama  Canals,  or  nearly 
$700,000,000.  However,  there  is  an  exceedingly  large  and  ever-increasing  demand  for 
poultry  and  poultry  products,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  for  which  reason  the  poultry 
business  has  become  so  profitable  that  no  farmer  can  afford  to  lack  the  latest  knowledge 
necessary  to  substantially  increase  his  profits.  Of  all  live  stock,  the  poultry  flock  is 
most  often  poorly  cared  for  and  misunderstood.  The  material  used  in  this  book  is 
entirely  practical.  In  its  preparation  an  earnest  effort  has  been  made  to  lay  the 
foundation  for  a  still  greater  poultry  industry. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  author  that  if  the  farmers  realized  the  value  of  this  great 
industry  and  the  profit  in  it,  when  managed  in  up-to-date  methods,  they  would  give 
the  matter  far  more  attention.  Surely  if  every  farmer  knew  that  the  average  hen 
is  only  half  producing,  if  he  knew  that  this  three-quarter  billion  dollar  industry  could, 
with  a  little  more  care  and  management,  be  made  into  a  one  and  a  half  billion  dollar 
industry,  he  would  feel  like  doing  his  part  and  make  his  share  of  the  profits. 

I  have  long  realized  the  great  need  of  education  among  farmers  on  the  scientific 
breeding,  feeding  and  handling  of  poultry.  The  farmer  should  fully  realize  that  the 
hen  bred  for  a  purpose  is  just  as  much  a  necessity  on  his  farm  if  he  would  get  the  best 
results  from  his  poultry  as  is  the  bacon- hog  in  his  pasture  or  the  cow  bred  for  a  purpose 
in  his  barn;  that  the  pure  bred  hen  is  no  more  subject  to  disease  than  the  speckled 
hen  of  his  forefathers.  While  the  latter  hen  may  possibly  lay  60  eggs  a  year,  the  modern 
hen  bred  for  egg  production  will  more  than  double  that  yield  with  no  more  care. 
Artificial  incubation  and  the  scientific  selection  of  breeds  adapted  to  a  specific  purpose 
have  wrought  wonders  in  the  development  of  the  industry. 

It  has  been  my  aim  to  gather  together  the  most  practical  knowledge  gained  in  my 
own  experience  and1  put  it  in  such  plain,  simple  language  that  everybody  would  enjoy 
reading  it,  and  in  such  a  form  that  the  points  may  be  easily  found.  Although 'getting 
a  large  number  of  these  ideas  from  my  own  personal  knowledge  and  experience,  I  have 
freely  read  and  consulted  the  works  of  other  well-known  authors,  and  here  I  want  to 
acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  the  following  men  for  the  splendid  ideas  obtained 
from  their  writings:  Prof.  James  E.  Rice,  of  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.;  Prof. 
James  Dryden,  Jr.,  of  Oregon  State  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis,  Oregon;  E.  J. 
Wortley,  E.  P.  Clayton,  of  Mississippi  State  Agricultural  College,  and  Miller  Purvis, 
Sunnycrest  Farm,  Wendell,  Idaho.  Besides  the  works  of  these  authors,  I  have  had 
access  to  the  leading  poultry  journals  of  the  country,  the  splendid  information  put  out 
by  the  Government  and  the  International  Harvester  Company;  also  that  gained  from 
the  farmers  and  poultrymen  from  all  over  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  might 
be  well  for  me  to  state  to  my  readers  that  I  answer  inquiries  every  week  from  poultry 
raisers  all  over  the  country.  These  inquiries  are  answered  by  personal  letter  as  well 
as  through  our  large  papers  and  journals. 

Because  of  my  many  years  of  practical  experience  on  my  large  poultry  farm  here 
at  New  Decatur,  Alabama,  where  I  am  now  actively  engaged  in  the  poultry  business, 
and  from  the  many  inquiries  I  have  received  from  the  farmers  and  poultry  raisers  all 
over  the  country,  I  have  had  the  opportunity  to  discover  the  practical  needs  of  the 
average  poultry  raiser.  For  this  reason  and  on  account  of  the  insight  into  the  needs 
of  the  industry  gained  as  a  judge  at  many  of  the  largest  poultry  shows  of  the  country, 


PREFACE 

as  a  speaker  for  the  different  poultry  associations  and  as  a  contributor  to  many  of 
the  leading  poultry  journals,  I  am  perhaps  as  well  qualified  to  speak  upon  this  subject 
as  any  poultry  raiser  in  the  country. 

It  is  with  the  hope  that  I  may  not  only  make  the  farmers  realize  the  money  to 
be  made  from  poultry  when  given  proper  care,  but  that  I  may  also  show  them  how 
to  make  those  profits,  that  I  have  undertaken  the  writing  of  this  book.  The  average 
farmer  will  find  that  by  applying  the  information  given  in  this  poultry  book  it  will 
increase  the  yearly  yield  of  his  flock  at  least  one  hundred  percent.  He  will  find  single 
recipes  that  will  save  him  enough  to  make  an  excellent  profit  on  the  investment;  if 
he  uses  them  as  I  have  done  in  my  own  experience.  If  these  things  are  used  and 
prove  as  beneficial  to  the  farmer  and  poultry  raiser  as  they  have  to  me,  I  will  feel 
justly  rewarded  for  my  work  in  getting  this  information  together. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


POULTRY 

Pages 

POULTRY   RAISING 273-327 

Classification  of  Breeds,  Weights  in  Pounds,  Selection  of  a  Breed, 
Poultry  Houses  and  Fixtures,  Housing,  Points  on  Cleaning  a  Poultry 
House,  How  to  Disinfect  a  Poultry  House,  Poultry  Droppings,  Egg 
Production,  Table  of  Feeds,  Egg  Rations,  How  to  Make  Hens  Lay  in 
Winter,  Nests,  Moulting,  Raising  Chickens,  Eggs  for  Hatching,  Incu- 
bation, Capons  and  Caponizing,  Systems  of  Feeding,  Dry  Feeding, 
Mash  Feeding,  Miscellaneous  Feeds,  Quick  Fattening,  Cramming,  Mar- 
keting Poultry  and  Poultry  Products,  Killing  and  Dressing  Chickens, 
Points  on  the  Care  of  Eggs,  Grading  Eggs,  Home  Preservation  of  Eggs, 
Methods  of  Preserving  Eggs,  Marketing,  Simple  System  of  Poultry 
Accounting,  Yearly  Egg  Record,  Monthly  Summary  Sheet,  Yearly  Sum- 
mary Sheet,  Balance  Sheet,  Inventory  Sheet. 

DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 328-355 

TURKEYS— RAISING 356-375 

Standard  Weights  of  Turkeys,  Housing,  Breeding,  Practical  Sugges- 
tions for  Selecting  Breeding  Stock,  Care  of  Breeding  Stock,  Turkey 
Nests,  Hatching,  Rules'  for  Care  of  Setters,  Raising  Poults,  Valuable 
Points  for  Successful  Turkey  Raising. 

DISEASES  OF  TURKEYS 376-380 

DUCK  RAISING 381-393 

Housing,  Breeding,  Incubation,  Brooding,  Feeding  Methods,  Feeding 
Ducklings,  Feed  for  Breeding  Ducks,  Laying  Ducks,  Preparing  for  Mar- 
ket, Valuable  "Don'ts"  in  Caring  for  and  Feeding  Ducks. 


DISEASES  OF  DUCKS 


394 


GEESE  RAISING   .  395-401 

Management   of   Geese,    Mating  and   Setting,   Feeds  for   Growing   Gos- 
lings, Fattening  Geese,  Fattening  Rations,  Marketing. 


DISEASES  OF  GEESE 


402 


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Prizes  Won  by  Mrs.  Forbes'  Poultry  at  Various  Shows. 


POULTRY    RAISING. 

Poultry  Crop  Exceeds  All  Others  Save  Corn,  But  It 
Is  Only  Half  What  It  Should  Be. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  BREEDS. 

General  Purpose  Breeds. — Plymouth  Rocks,  Orpingtons,  Wyandottes,  Javas, 
Buckeyes,  Dominiques,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  Cornish,  Oregons. 

Egg  Breeds. — Leghorns,  Campines,  Anconas,  Minorcas,  Andalusians,  Spanish, 
Hamburgs. 

Meat  Breeds. — Cochins,  Brahmas,  Langshans,  Dorkings,  Indian  Games. 

Ornamental  Breeds. — Polish,  Bantams,  Sultans,  Silkies. 

WEIGHTS   IN   POUNDS 


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Cockerels 

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Minorcas  (Rose-comb  Black,  Single-comb  White) 
Andalusians                      

Spanish                                             .       

Hamburgs             

Cochins                     

Brahma   Light                       

Brahma   Dark                    

Langshans                                   

Dorkings   \Vhite                                

Dorkings,  Silver     

Dorkings   Colored                                 

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Orpingtons                              

WVandottes                           

Javas                            

Buckeyes                           

Rhode  Island  Reds                          

Cornish                                   

Oregons  (new)                        

Bantams                                      

Selection  of  a  Breed. 

General  Purpose  Breeds.— General  purpose  breeds  are  of  medium  size, 
fairly  active,  have  medium  sized  combs  and  wattles  and  endure  cold  weather 
well.  The  hens  of  this  class  can  be  made  to  produce  a  good  quality  of  brown- 
shelled  eggs,  and  they  are  usually  good  setters  and  mothers.  As  one  has  to 

273 


274  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Black  Orpington  Hen. 


Barred  Rock  Cockerel. 


White  Leghorn  Pullet. 


White  Leghorn  Cockerel. 


POULTRY  RAISING-CHICKENS 


275 


Whitr    Wi.ndotU 


276 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Minorca. 


Light  Brahma. 


Dorking. 


Rosecomb  Black  Bantams. 


Polish. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  27T 

make  frequent  sales  of  flesh  in  the  shape  of  surplus  cockerels  and  hens,  the 
carcass  as  well  as  egg  production  should  be  considered,  however,  it  is  generally 
agreed  that  the  egg  is  of  more  value  commercially  than  the  meat.  One  of  the 
general  purpose  breeds  is  best  for  the  farmer  because  he  usually  desires  both 
meat  and  eggs. 

Egg  Breeds. — Egg  breeds  are  of  small  or  medium  size,  have  large  combs 
and  wattles,  very  active,  ranging  through  the  fields  when  given  their  liberty, 
quick  to  mature  and  needing  good  houses  in  cold  weather,  more  than  the  larger 
breeds.  They  fatten  slowly.  The  hens  often  begin  laying  when  but  four 
and  one-half  months  old  and  when  matured  produce  an  abundance  of  large, 
white-shelled  eggs.  They  are  usually  non-setters  or  at  best  but  poor  setters, 
and  rather  poor  mothers.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  keep  a  few  fowls  of 
some  other  breed  to  keep  up  the  stock  if  natural  methods  of  incubation  are 
employed.  Their  pure  white  eggs  are  valuable  for  the  market. 

Meat  Breeds. — Meat  breeds  are  large  in  body  and  especially  suitable  for 
the  production  of  large  males.  They  are  domestic,  slow  and  sluggish  of 
movement,  with  little  desire  for  foraging,  easily  confined  by  low  fences,  quite 
slow  to  mature,  and  will  readily  take  on  weight  when  liberally  fed.  The  hens 
are  persistent  setters  and  rather  indifferent  layers  of  large,  brown-shelled  eggs. 
This  is  the  kind  to  handle  if  meat  production  for  the  market  is  desired. 

Ornamental  Breeds. — Ornamental  breeds  as  a  rule  are  not  as  well  adapted 
for  farm  purposes  as  the  breeds  of  the  other  three  classes,  as  they  are  not 
highly  esteemed  for  eggs  or  meat. 

Strain  More  Important  Than  Breed. — Too  much  importance  must  not  be 
attached  to  the  breed,  for  the  breed  is  not  as  important  as  the  particular  strain. 
The  tendencies  of  a  certain  class  can  be  changed  by  proper  breeding.  One 
should  breed  for  the  particular  result  wanted.  For  instance,  a  meat  breed 
can  be  made  to  increase  its  laying  by  proper  lineage  and  careful  attention. 

Pure  Bred  Stock  Best. — Best  results  are  obtained  from  pure  bred  stock 
for  that  means  a  uniformity  of  products.  Pure  bred  fowls  will  make  a  greater 
profit  than  mongrels  if  given  the  same  care  and  proper  marketing  is  done. 
You  should  get  stock  from  some  one  who  has  developed  a  strain  bred  to  lay 
if  it  is  eggs  you  want  and  a  strain  bred  for  meat  if  you  desire  to  market  your 
fowls  as  a  main  issue.  The  average  poultryman  is  not  usually  very  interested 
in  the  ornamental  points,  but  the  time  seems  to  be  coming  when  utility  and 
fancy  will  be  represented  in  the  same  fowls.  Utility  breeders  are  taking  more 
interest  in  fancy  points  and  fancy  poultry  breeders  are  taking  greater  pains  in 
breeding  laying  strains. 

Poultry  Houses  and  Fixtures. 

Location.— Drainage  and  Southern  Exposure.— Select  an  elevation  with 
natural  drainage  away  from  the  building.     A  gentle  slope  facing  the  south 
is  most  suitable.    Other  things  being  equal,  this  will  be  warmer  and  dryei 
If  a  southern  exposure  cannot  be  obtained,  a  southeastern  is  preferable  1 
southwestern.    Fowls  prefer  the  morning  to  the  afternoon  sun. 

Soil.— A  dry,  porous  soil  such  as  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  is  preferabl 


278  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

to  a  clay  soil.  The  former  is  more  easily  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition  and 
drains  more  readily.  If  the  soil  is  not  naturally  dry,  it  should  be  made  so 
by  a  thorough  under  drainage. 

Sunlight  and  Dryness.— Select  a  light  and  dry  place.  Sunlight  is  a  great 
germ  destroyer.  A  poultry  house  should  not  be  built  in  a  hollow  where  cold 
air  settles. 

Temperature. — It  is  well  to  build  it  in  the  lee  of  a  wind  break  for  protec- 
tion. Keep  the  lowest  probable  temperature  in  mind  as  the  comfort  of  the 
fowls  is  the  main  consideration.  Depend  on  ventilation  to  let  the  heat  escape. 

Housing. 

Give  Hens  a  Home. — The  hen  should  not  be  just  housed — she  should  be 
given  a  home.  Rather  than  ha.ve  the  building  damp,  cold,  dark  or  full  of 
mites,  it  should  be  clean,  light,  cheery  and  comfortable.  As  Professor  Rice 
of  Cornell  says :  "The  singing  hen  is  the  laying  hen."  The  hens  will  not  sing 
unless  you  keep  them  comfortable  and  happy. 

Make  House  Convenient. — Save  labor  and  you  save  money.  Everything 
that  aids  you  in  lessening  the  amount  of  labor  in  caring  for  your  flock  will 
increase  your  profits.  Do  not  build  the  house  too  far  away  from  the  other 
buildings.  Make  it  of  easily  cleaned  material.  Have  dropping  boards,  a  place 
for  surplus  feed,  handy  nests  and  a  barrel  close  by  for  manure.  Have  dropping 
boards  and  roosts  readily  removable  to  make  cleaning  easy — all  to  save 
time. 

Make  House  Comfortable. — Allow  at  least  two  cubic  feet  of  floor  space  for 
each  fowl.  Never  build  a  poultry  house  more  than  seven  feet  high  in  front 
and  five  feet  high  in  the  rear.  It  must  be  low  to  be  comfortable  for  the  hens. 
The  hen  is  a  great  heat  maker.  Her  temperature  averages  about  108°  and  a 
flock  of  one  hundred  hens  will  throw  enough  heat  from  their  bodies  to  keep 
the  temperature  safe  even  if  the  thermometer  goes  below  zero. 

Make  House  Light  and  Dry. — Let  plenty  of  sunlight  in  the  house  as  it 
is  the  best  germ  destroyer  in  the  world  and  poultry  will  not  do  well  if  housed 
in  dark,  gloomy  quarters.  Have  a  good  ventilating  system  and  dry  floor 
to  make  the  house  dry  and  comfortable.  Have  the  floor  higher  than  the 
ground  surrounding  it.  If  a  house  is  built  warmly  and  has  a  glass  front,  it  gets 
hot  during  the  day  and  cools  off  quickly  at  night.  Such  a  house  is  always  damp 
because  there  is  no  circulation  of  air  to  dry  out  the  moisture  which  condenses 
on  the  walls.  The  partial  open  front  house  is  conceded  to  be  the  best  for 
most  sections.  Cold  does  not  hurt  hens  but  they  are  injured  by  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  If  the  thermometer  drops  below  zero,  muslin  curtains  can  be 
stretched  across  the  open  windows  to  prevent  the  hens  freezing  their  combs. 
Such  curtains  keep  out  cold,  snow  and  wind  but  permit  the  air  to  pass  through, 
keeping  the  house  dry.  When  muslin  is  used,  allow  one  square  foot  of  muslin 
placed  on  the  south  side  to  every  15  square  feet  of  floor  space  in  houses  of 
15  feet  in  width.  If  the  house  is  ten  feet  wide,  use  one  square  foot  of  muslin 


POULTRY  RAISING-CHICKENS  279 

to  20  feet  of  floor  space.    In  houses  20  feet  in  width  allow  one  square  foot  of 
muslin  to  every  10  square  feet  of  floor  space. 

Keep  House  Ventilated  but  Prevent  Drafts.-Fresh  air  is  good  for  hens 
but  drafts  are  injurious.     Remember  that  chickens  cannot   endure  sudden 
changes  and  easily  catch  colds.    An  open  front  poultry  house,  with  the  north 
east  and  west  fides  closed  prevent  drafts  and  furnish  plentv  of  good  fresh 
air. 


Poultry  Yards. 


Keep  House  Clean. — To  have  the  house  sanitary  and  cheerful,  it  must  be 
kept  clean.  Have  boards  to  catch  the  manure  at  night,  keep  clean  litter  on 
the  floor  and  clean  the  chicken  coop  thoroughly  at  least  once  a  month.  Clean 
the  dropping  board  at  least  once  a  week  in  summer.*  If  a  dirt  floor  is  used, 
remove  the  litter  often  enough  to  keep  it  dry  and  clean.  If  one  gets  the  habit 
of  cleanliness  he.  need  have  no  fear  from  poultry  diseases. 


•An  earth  floor  is  best.  Earth  Itself  is  a  disinfectant.  The  flodr  should  be  raised  above  the 
outside  surface  by  putting  in  other  dirt  and  packing  it  down  well.  Bricks  may  be  used  around 
the  lower  outside  to  make  a  wall  to  retain  the  extra  dirt  in  real  cold,  climates.  A  half-inch  mesh 
of  steel  wire  under  the  dirt  makes  best  guard  against  rats.  Concrete  floors  are  not  desirable  ai 
they  are  nearly  always  damp. 


280 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Keep  the  House  Free  From  Vermin. — Keep  the  poultry  house  clean  and 
it  will  not  be  infested  with  lice  and  mites.  Cover  the  nests  and  roosts  with 
kerosene  or  kerosene  emulsion  once  a  month  during  the  spring  and  summer 
to  eliminate  them.  The  best  preventatives  are  sunlight  and  cleanliness. 

House  Need  Not  Be  Expensive  to  Be  Good. — A  good  house  does  not 
necessarily  mean  an  expensive  house.  A  shed  made  of  posts  with  straw  for 
sides  makes  a.  good  house  but  this  kind  is  hard  to  keep  clean. 


The  Open  Front  Poultry  House. 


Keep  These  Things  in  Mind  in  Housing. 

1.  Floor  Space. — Two  to  five  square  feet  of  floor  space  should  be  allowed 
per  fowl. 

2.  Fresh  Air. — Fresh  air  should  be  secured  by  ventilation  rather  than 
by  increasing  the  amount  of  cubic  air  space  thus  giving  more  space  than  neces- 
sary for  the  convenience  of  the  attendant. 

3.  Intensive  vs.  Colony  System. — More  birds  can  be  kept  per  floor  area 
under  the  colony  than  on  the  intensive  system  in  mild  climates  where  the 
hens  have  free  range  throughout  the  year. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS 


281 


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282  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

4.  Open-Front  House. — The  partial   open-front   house  is  granted  first 
place  as  the  best  for  most  sections.     (See  illustration.) 

5.  Colony  Plan. — The  colony  plan  is  very  good  for  many  farms  as  it  does 
away  with  the  danger  of  tainted  soils.     (See  illustration.) 

6.  Roosts. — Roosts  should  be  built  on  the  same  level,  two  feet  six  inches 
from  the  floor  with  a  dropping  board  eight  inches  below  them. 

7.  Material  for  Roosts. — Good  roosts  may  be  made  of  2  x  2  inch  material. 

8.  iNests. — Nests  may  be  placed  on  the  side  walls  under  the  dropping 
boards. 

9.  Darkened  Nests. — It  is  best  to  have  the  nests  darkened.     Hens  pre- 
fer a  secluded  place  to  lay. 

10.  Cracks  and  Crevices. — No  cracks  and  crevices  should  be  left  for  ver- 
min. 

11.  Rats. — Prevent  them  from  getting  in  by  sinking  a  wire  netting  all 
around  the  poultry  house     Dig  a  foot  ditch  around  the  house  and  line  the 
inside  bank  with  wire  netting,  one  inch  mesh,  one  foot  wide,  and  replace  the 
earth.    The  wire  should  be  wide  enough  to  reach  one  foot  below  the  lower 
edge  of  the  wall  if  the  house  stands  off  the  ground.    The  use  of  a  brick,  stone 
or  cement  foundation  sunk  one  foot  into  the  ground  will  prevent  rats  from 
getting  in  when  an  earthen  floor  is  used. 

12.  Earthen  Floor. — If  the  location  is  dry  an  earthen  floor  is  better  than 
any  other. 

13.  Board  Floor. — A  board  floor  is  better  than  an  earthen  one  if  the  lo- 
cation is  damp.     If  used,  build  high  enough  to  permit  the  air  to  freely  cir- 
culate beneath. 

14.  Walls. — Use  a  double  wall  on  the  north  and  west  sides  if  the  climate 
is  severe. 

Points  on  Cleaning  a  Poultry  House. 

Not  every  poultryman  of  experience  even,  knows  how  to  really  clean  a 
poultry  house.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  remove  all  the  litter  and  loose 
dirt  which  can  be  shoveled  out.  Then  give  the  floor,  walls  and  ceiling  a 
thorough  sweeping  and  shovel  out  the  accumulated  debris.  Next  play  a  garden 
hose,  with  the  maximum  water  pressure  which  can  be  obtained,  upon  floor, 
roosting  boards,  walls  and  ceiling,  until  all  the  dirt  which  can  be  washed  down 
easily  is  disposed  of.  Then  take  a  heavy  hoe  or  roost-board  scraper  and 
proceed  to  scrape  the  floor  and  roosting  boards  clean  of  the  trampled  and 
caked  dressing  and  dirt.  Shovel  out  what  has  been  accumulated  and  get 
the  hose  into  action  once  more  and  wash  the  whole  place  down  again 
thoroughly  and  follow  this  with  another  scraping. 

Next,  with  a  stiff-bristled  broom  thoroughly  scrub  walls,  floors,  nest 
boxes,  roost  boards,  etc.  After  another  rinsing  down  and  cleaning  out  of  ac- 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS 


283 


Poultryman's  Medicine  Cabinet. 


Handy    articles    for    thorough  disinfection. 


284  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

cumulated  dirt,  let  the  house  dry  out  for  a  day  or  two.  Then  make  a  search- 
ing inspection  to  see  if  any  dirt  can  be  discovered.  If  so,  apply  the  appropriate 
treatment  as  outlined  above.  If,  however,  everything  appears  to  be  clean, 
the  time  has  come  to  make  it  really  and  truly  clean  by  disinfecting.  To  do  this 
it  is  necessary  to  spray  all  parts  of  the  house  or  thoroughly  wash  with  a  scrub- 
brush.  Wet  with  a  good  disinfectant.  This  should  be  done  at  least  twice, 
allowing  time  between  for  it  to  dry. 

How  to  Disinfect  a  Poultry  House. 

First.  See  that  the  house  is  perfectly  clean  by  following  faithfully  the 
instructions  given  above.  Where  the  garden  hose  is  not  available,  use  instead 
a  broom  or  a  scrubbing  brush. 

Second.  Fumigate.  Before  fumigating  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide 
accommodations  for  the  fowls.  Usually  these  operations  take  place  during  mild 
weather,  when  it  will  not  hurt  the  birds  to  be  shut  out  of  the  house  for  eight  to 
ten  hours.  The  closing  up  need  not  be  done  until  along  towards  noon  when 
most  of  the  laying  is  over  with.  Should  there  be  other  houses,  shed  or  coops 
into  which  the  hens  can  go  to  lay,  the  fumigating  can  be  done  at  any  time. 

In  case  the  disinfecting  is  done  during  cold  weather,  extra  precaution 
should  be  taken  in  caring  for  the  hens.  If  they  are  laying,  do  not  expose  them 
to  sudden  changes.  Usually,  however,  when  conditions  are  such  that  it  is 
necessary  to  do  this  house-cleaning  in  the  winter  time,  very  few  eggs  are 
forthcoming  and  it  is  not  a  question  of  keeping  up  the  egg  yield,  but  of  get- 
ting the  house  properly  disinfected.  When  the  hens  are  removed,  close  up 
the  house  as  tight  as  possible  and  light  sulphur  candles.  Let  them  burn 
four  or  five  hours  or  until  they  are  exhausted.  The  house  then  can  be  opened 
and  in  half  an  hour  the  rest  of  the  disinfectant  should  be  finished. 

Third.  Thoroughly  disinfect  by  the  use  of  good  lice  paint,  applied  with  a 
brush  or  sprayer.  Paint  the  roosts,  drop  boards  and  nests  very  thoroughly. 
Be  sure  the  liquid  gets  into  all  the  cracks  and  joints  of  the  roosts.  Miss  no 
place  where  the  fowls  go  or  where  the  insects  may  hide.  Follow  this  with 
some  of  the  good,  coal-tar  preparations  sprayed  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
inside  of  the  house.  Take  pains  to  get  into  every  corner. 

Now  that  the  house  is  clean,  this  spray  should  be  used  once  a  week 
throughout  the  summer  and  once  a  fortnight  during  the  winter.  To  do  this  is 
important,  because  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  keep  a  poultry  house  clean  after 
it  has  once  been  thoroughly  cleaned  and  properly  disinfected. 

Fourth.  To  make  a  complete  job,  follow  the  foregoing  treatment  with 
a  whitewash  brush  and  your  house  will  be  as  clean  and  healthful  as  hands 
can  make  it.  The  whitewashing  will  depend  upon  the  time  of  the  year  and  the 
accommodations  for  the  fowls,  but  if  possible  have  it  done  before  they  are  al- 
lowed to  enter  the  house  again.  A  good  whitewash,  one  that  will  stick  and  not 
rub  off,  is  made  as  follows,  or  in  these  proportions : 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  285 

U.  S.  Government  Whitewash. 

Unslaked  lime 2  pecks 

Common  salt 1  peck 

Rice  flour 3  Ibs. 

Spanish  whiting V2  lb. 

Glue '.  1  lb. 

Water Sufficient  quantity 

The  quantities  given  are  sufficient  to  make  nine  or  ten  gallons  of- white- 
wash. If  only  part  of  the  whitewash  is  needed,  the  balance  can  be  kept  for 
future  use.  Should  a  smaller  quantity  be  desired,  the  proportions  can  be  cut 
down  to  suit. 

Directions. — To  properly  make  the  amount  of  whitewash  above  men- 
tioned, two  vessels  are  needed,  one  holding  at  least  ten  gallons  and  the  other 
holding  half  as  much.  A  small  barrel  and  a  tub  or  any  water-tight  vessel  will 
answer  very  well. 

1.  Slake  the  lime  in  the  barrel,  using  two  or  three  gallons  of  water 
for  two  pecks  of  lime.  2.  Cover  the  barrel.  3.  Dissolve  the  salt  in  water, 
strain  the  brine  and  add  it  to  the  slaked  lime  in  the  barrel  4.  Boil  the  rice 
flour  for  ten  minutes  in  a  small  quantity  of  water  5.  Dissolve  the  glue  in  a 
double  cooker  or  water  bath  and  avoid  scorching.  6.  In  the  tub  mix  the  whit- 
ing with  about  five  gallons  of  hot  water.  7.  Add  to  the  whiting  mixture  in 
tub  the  boiled  rice  and  dissolved  glue.  Mix  thoroughly.  8.  Pour  mixture  in 
tub  into  the  barrel  containing  slaked  lime,  stir  well  until  thoroughly  mixed. 
9.  Cover  barrel  to  protect  from  dirt  and  let  whitewash  stand  for  a  few  days, 
when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  10.  This  whitewash  should  be  applied  hot  if 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  Heat  it  in  any  kettle  or  other  metal  vessel 
on  a  stove  or  suspended  over  a  fire. 

Fifth.  Before  allowing  the  fowls  to  return  to  the  clean  house  they  them- 
selves should  be  made  clean  by  a  thorough  treatment  for  lice.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  go  over  them  with  some  good  insect  powder  or  powdered  sulphur  before 
removing  them  from  the  house,  ind  again  on  putting  them  back.  Dust  the  pow- 
der well  into  the  feathers  of  every  one  and  allow  no  sickly  birds  to  enter 
the  clean  house. 

A  first  class  lice  powder  can  be  made  by  mixing  5  parts  of  Naphthalene 
flakes  with  95  parts  of  some  good  carrier  such  as  a  cheap  talcum  powder 
that  can  be  purchased  for  5  to  10  cents  a  pound. 

Sixth.  Remove  and  destroy  all  wooden  feed  troughs,  and  provide  new 
ones.  If  these  are  made  of  galvanized  iron  they  can  be  kept  clean  with  little 
trouble.  Galvanized  or  earthernware  drinking  vessels  must  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  scalding  and  scouring.  If  the  old  ones  are  not  in  perfect  condition 
it  is  much  better  to  destroy  them  and  to  provide  new. 

Disinfectants. 

Creoline,  naphthos  and  zenoleum  are  good  disinfectants  and  germicides, 
each  having  a  carbolic  acid  odor. 


286  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Whitewashes. 

Whitewash  is  the  cheapest  of  all  paints  and  may  be  used  for  interior  or 
exterior  surfaces.  It  can  be  made  as  follows : 

1.  Slake  about  ten  pounds  of  quicklime  in  a  pail  with  two  gallons  of 
boiling  water.    Cover  the  pail  with  burlap  or  cloth  and  allow  it  to  slake  one 
hour.     Add  enough  water  to  bring  the  whitewash  to  a  consistency  which 
may  be  readily  applied.    Adding  fou-r  ounces  of  carbolic  acid  to  each  gallon  of 
whitewash  increases  its  disinfecting  power. 

2.  Whitewash  for  exterior  surfaces  (waterproof)  : 

First.     Slake  one  bushel  of  quicklime  in  twelve  gallons  of  hot  water. 

Second.  Dissolve  two  pounds  of  common  salt  and  one  pound  of  sulphate 
of  zinc  in  two  gallons  of  boiling  water.  Pour  second  solution  into  first,  then 
add  two  gallons  of  skim  milk  and  mix  thoroughly. 

Poultry  Droppings. 

Poultry  droppings  are  very  good  fertilizer  as  they  are  rich  in  sulphate 
ammonia,  kainit  and  high  grade  acid  phosphate.  One  hundred  birds  running 
at  large  on  an  acre  should  have  added,  in  six  months,  to  its  fertility  the  equiva- 
lent of  at  least  one  hundred  pounds  of  high  grade  acid  phosphate,  two  hundred 
pounds  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  sixty  pounds  of  kainit.  The  droppings 
should  be  saved  during  the  winter.  Twenty-five  hens  will  produce  in  six 
months  three  hundred  seventy-five  pounds  of  fertilizer  from  the  roost  drop- 
pings alone.  As  a  top  dressing  for  grass,  poultry  droppings  are  exceedingly 
valuable  because  they  contain  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of 
ammonia  compounds  which  are  nearly  as  quick  in  their  action  as  nitrate  of 
soda.  However,  droppings  must  be  taken  care  of  if  they  retain  their  value 
because  the  gaseous  contents  soon  escape.  There  are  several  chemicals,  each 
of  fertilizing  value  in  themselves,  which  can  be  added  to  the  droppings  now 
and  then  with  good  effect,  both  in  making  the  air  of  the  henhouse  more 
wholesome  and  in  stopping  waste.  They  are:  gypsum  or  land  plaster,  kainit, 
cheap  potash  salt,  acid  phosphate.  Each  one  of  these  chemicals  forms  a 
compound  with  the  ammonia  as  fast  as  it  is  set  free  from  the  original  com- 
bination. Plaster  often  forms  a  lumpy,  dry  mixture  if  used  in  large  enough 
quantities  to  stop  the  ammonia  but  kainit  and  acid  phosphate  make  a  moist, 
sticky  mass.  Never  use  wood  ashes  or  slaked  lime  as  neither  of  these  com- 
bine with  the  ammonia  but  forces  it  out  of  its  compounds  and  takes  its  place. 
It  is  also  well  to  add  dry  meadow  muck  or  sawdust  besides  the  chemicals. 
It  would  require  about  one-half  peck  of  either  of  these  absorbents  besides 
about  eight  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  or  kainit  to  the  weekly  droppings  of 
twenty-five  hens  when  scraped  from  the  roosting  platforms.  In  case  one 
desired  a  balanced  fertilizer  for  corn  or  some  other  hoed  crop,  he  could  use 
equal  parts  of  acid  phosphate  and  kainit  instead  of  either  alone. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  287 

EGG  PRODUCTION. 

(Farmers  Lose  $45,000,000  Annually  From  Bad  Methods  of  Producing  and 

Handling  Eggs.) 

The  Five  "G's"  in  Egg  Production.— Grains,  greens,  grubs,  grit  and 
gumption — these  mean  egg  production. 

Produce  Infertile  Eggs. 

Fertile  Eggs  Spoil  Easily.— Fertile  eggs  cause  a  $15,000,000  loss  every 
year  in  the  United  States  alone.  They  spoil  quickly.  A  fertile  egg  contains 
the  germ  from  which  a  chick  develops.  This  development  starts  whenever  the 
temperature  is  above  70  degrees.  Fertile  eggs  cause  "blood  rings"  and  "black 
rot"  which  spoils  them  for  market. 

To  Prevent  Loss  Dispose  of  Roosters.— The  rooster  does  not  help  the 
hens  to  lay.  He  merely  fertilizes  the  germ  of  the  egg.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  keep  a  male  bird  in  order  to  produce  eggs.  Hens  lay  just  as  many,  if 
not  more  eggs  when  there  is  no  male  in  the  flock.  To  have  good  eggs  in  hot 
weather  for  food  and  market,  kill  the  roosters  as  soon  as  the  breeding  season 
is  over. 

Breeding  for  Egg  Production. — The  strain  is  more  important  than  the 
breed.  A  pullet  from  a  strain  not  bred  to  lay  will  not  be  a  good  layer  no 
matter  how  well  fed  she  is.  One  must  develop  a  laying  strain.  Select  your 
stock  from  a  strain  bred  to  lay.  Select  your  stock  from  breeders  of  known 
excellence  as  layers.  Also  look  to  the  male  bird.  A  rooster  that  has  come 
from  parents  of  medium  production  can  not  produce  a  high  producing  in- 
dividual when  crossed  with  even  the  best  of  hens.  The  early  maturing  stock 
will  contain  the  high  producing  bird. 

Improve  Your  Flock. — Cull  out  the  weaklings  and  the  poor  layers. 

Cull  Out  the  Old  Hens. — It  is  seldom  profitable  to  keep  hens  for  laying 
after  they  are  two  and. one-half  years  old.  Not  that  they  will  stop  yielding 
profit  but  younger  fowls  will  yield  a  greater  profit.  Many  poultrymen  who 
make  a  specialty  of  winter  egg  production  keep  nothing  but  pullets.  They 
dispose  of  the  one-year-old  hens  before  it  is  time  to  put  them  into  winter 
quarters. 

Time  Breeds  Begin  Laying. — Yearling  hens  will  not  begin  laying  much 
before  January  first  and  older  hens  not  until  later.  November  and  December 
eggs  bring  the  high  prices.  Laying  breeds  should  begin  laying  when  about 
five  months  old ;  general  purpose  breeds  when  about  six  months  and  the  meat 
breeds  at  seven  or  eight  months. 

How  to  Select  a  Laying  Hen. — A  good  laying  hen  has  bright  eyes,  the 
comb  is  bright  red  and  larger  than  the  average  of  her  breed;  neck  is  long; 
the  breast  is  broad  and  somewhat  receding  from  top  to  bottom;  the  back 
is  long  and  wider  at  the  hips  than  shoulders ;  she  has  a  deep  abdomen ; 
the  lower  line  being  lower  than  the  lower  line  of  the  breast;  legs  are  wide 


288 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


A    Young    Mule   of    W«afc    Vital- 
ity.   Xat*  Kxrnmnrn  of  Badr 


^A  Voang  M»l<;  With  Siren* 
'  Vi«or.  Nut<  Widlb  of  Brein 
I  an.<i  Sprtad  »(  I>n 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS 


289 


apart  and  the  tail  well  spread.  Examine  the  pelvic  bones.  These  are  the  two 
rather  pointed  bones  which  can  be  felt  in  the  rear  of  the  hen's  body  just  below 
and  at  each  side  of  the  vent.  The  pelvic  bones  of  a  good  layer  are  wide  apart. 
If  the  points  of  these  bones  are  close  together  the  hen  is  not  laying  and  she 
is  probably  not  a  good  layer.  The  hen  may  be  considered  a  good  layer  if 
three  fingers  can  be  laid  between  the  points  of  these  bones.  A  good  layer 
shows  the  pelvic  bones  well  apart  even  when  not  in  full  lay.  When  the  bones 
are  close  together  and  difficult  to  press  apart,  the  hen  is  generally  a  very 
poor  layer.  High  producing  hens  molt  late,  they  have  pale  shanks  at  the  end 
of  the  laying  season  and  are  heavy  eaters. 

Bad  Traits  Are  Inherited. — While  the  chickens  are  maturing  and  their 
distinguishing  characteristics  are  asserting  themselves,  be  on  the  lookout 
for  bad  characteristics  and  weed  out  the  undesirables.  The  bully  is  pressing  a 
tendency  that  was  born  in  her.  She  interferes  with  the  contentment  of  the 
flock  and  keeps  up  a  continual  state  of  excitement.  This  affects  the  laying 
and  health  of  the  other  hens  and  she  should  be  dealt  with  drastically. 

No  Extra  Roosters. — Extra  roosters  take  room  and  feed  and  yield  no 
profits.  Sell  or  kill  them.  The  hens  will  lay  just  as  well,  or  better,  without 
them. 

Keep  One  Breed. — A  uniform  breed  means  uniform  products  and  uniform 
products  bring  better  prices.  Such  a  flock  is  easier  to  tend.  It  is  more  at- 
tractive and  you  will  give  it  better  attention.  Breed  from  the  best  you  have. 

Feeding  for  Egg  Production. — The  problem  of  feeding  is  of  great  im- 
portance. It  should  be  considered  carefully  for  not  only  the  general  health  of 
the  birds,  but  also  the  economy  which  promotes  success  depends  upon  it  to 
a  large  extent.  This  subject  should  be  studied  with  common  sense  for  there 
are  no  hard  and  fast  rules  which  apply  to  every  case.  On  should  consider 
the  general  environment  and  price  of  feeds  in  determining  the  rations.  Hens 
must  be  given  balanced  rations  if  they  produce  results.  If  the  ration  is  prop- 
erly balanced  the  hens  will  make  a  good  profit,  but  if  the  ration  is  improperly 
balanced  they  will  be  kept  at  a  loss.  If  the  hen  has  considerable  range,  grain 
is  all  that  need  be  supplied  during  the  summer  months.  In  the  winter,  and 
also  if  confined  in  summer,  everything  must  be  provided.  It  is  false  economy 
to  expect  them  to  pick  their  living  from  the  leavings  of  other  stock.  Many 
farmers  admit  that  they  feed  their  hens  nothing  during  the  summer.  In  so 
doing,  they  are  saving  feed  but  losing  money.  A  productive  hen  requires 
from  70  to  80  pounds  of  feed  a  year.  If  she  gets  only  40  or  50  pounds,  she 
will  simply  satisfy  her  body  requirements.  She  will  not  lay  eggs.  The  scantily 
fed  hen  is  a  poor  investment. 

The  nutriment  in  the  feed  of  laying  hens  serves  two  purposes;  first,  to 
furnish  heat  to  the  body  and  repair  waste ;  second,  to  supply  the  egg-making 
materials.  Only  the  surplus  over  what  is  needed  for  the  body  is  used  for 
egg  production  so  it  is  important  to  feed  in  sufficient  quantities  to  induce  this 
production.  To  produce  eggs  one  must  have  healthy  vigorous  stock,  and  feed 
the  material  from  which  eggs  are  made. 


390 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS 
TABLE  OF  FEEDS 


291 


Provided  by  Nature 

Classification 

Fed  by  Poultrymen 

Worms  and  bugs. 

Protein    or    nitrogenous 
material. 

Meat  (beef  scrap  or  green  cut  bone),  eggs, 
cottage  cheese,  milk  (skim,  sour,  butter- 
milk). 

Greens. 

Succulents. 

Cabbage,  sprouted  oats,  mangels,  clover,  al- 
falfa, lettuce,  kale,  beets,  turnips,  pota- 
toes, etc. 

Seeds. 

Nonnitrogenous. 
/ 

Grains,  such  as  corn,  wheat,  buckwheat,  oats, 
barley,  etc. 

Grit. 

Mineral  matter. 

Grit,  oyster  shell,  old  mortar,  fine  gravel,  etc. 

Water. 

Water. 

Water. 

What  It  Takes  to  Make  an  Egg. — An  egg  is  about  74  percent  water,  15 
percent  protein,  10  percent  fat  and  10  percent  mineral  matter. 

Plenty  of  Water. — Since  74  percent  of  an  egg  is  water,  it  is  very  neces- 
sary to  keep  plenty  of  good,  clean  water  before  the  hens  at  all  times.  Running 
water  is  best  but  if  this  is  not  available,  keep  the  water  in  vessels  fresh. 

Antiseptic  in  Water. — It  is  sometimes  well  to  add  enough  permanganate 
of  potash  to  make  it  a  wine  red.  This  will  act  as  an  antiseptic  in  preventing 
the  transmission  of  disease  through  the  water  and  will  help  keep  down  in- 
testinal parasites. 

Keep  Water  Warm  in  Winter. — In  winter,  as  in  summer,  the  first  thing  a 
fowl  does  when  it  leaves  the  roost  is  to  hunt  the  water  pan,  and  nearly  the 
last  thing  before  going  on  the  roost  is  to  drink.  If  the  water  is  icy  cold 
they  will  not  drink  much,  but  if  warm,  they  will  drink  plentifully.  If  the 
weather  is  freezing,  warm  the  water  several  times  a  day. 

Keep  Water  Clean. — There  are  several  ways  of  keeping  the  water  clean. 
One  way  is  to  punch  three  or  four  nail  holes  near  the  top  of  a  syrup  bucket 
or  tin  can,  fill  the  can  or  bucket  with  water  and  turn  it  upside  down  in  a  shallow 
pan  or  saucer.  The  water  oozes  out  no  faster  than  the  chickens  drink  it 
and  is  always  fresh  and  clean.  (See  illustration  for  other  schemes  for  keeping 
water  clean). 

Protein. — Protein  is  the  most  costly  but  the  most  valuable  part  of  any 
ration.  It  is  that  material  in  feed  which  goes  to  make  nerve  cells,  brain  mat- 
ter, tendons,  skin,  feathers,  claws,  beaks,  intestines,  vital  organs,  and,  when 
combined  with  lime,  bones  and  muscle.  It  is  found  in  the  animal  feeds  such 
as :  buttermilk  or  sour  skim  milk,  beef  scrap,  ground  bone,  cut  bone  or  wild 
game,  some  legume  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa  leaves,  insects  and  bugs  during 
the  summer,  offals  from  butchering.  One  need  exclude  no  animal  food  from 
the  ration.  Hens  relish  and  make  good  use  of  all  of  them.  Feed  them  raw, 
when  possible,  unless  they  are  from  an  infected  animal.  Better  results  are 
obtained  by  using  cheap  fats  like  beef  scrap  than  by  feeding  higher  priced 


292  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

animal  meats.  Beef  scraps  make  an  exceedingly  cheap  source  of  food  for 
chickens  and  should  be  bought  when  they  can  be  had  at  reasonable  prices. 

Alfalfa. — It  has  been  found  by  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  that  alfalfa 
(lucern  leaves)  fed  in  winter  has  the  same  effect  on  the  eggs  that  grass  has 
during  the  spring  and  summer,  that  is,  it  gives  the  yolk  the  natural  rich  orange 
color.  It  is  a  fine  winter  feed. 

Skim  Milk. — Skim  milk  contains  a  great  deal  of  protein.  When  given  to 
the  birds  either  as  a  drink  or  in  the  form  of  a  wet  mash,  it  will  double  the 
egg  yields,  according  to  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station.  Let  it  sour  before 
feeding  as  sour  milk  keeps  the  hens  healthy.  It  may  be  given  as  a  drink, 
compounded  with  beef  scraps  or  animal  meal,  or  it  may  be  mixed  with  ground 
grain  or  meal.  When  added  to  a  meal  mixture  use  about  two  pounds  of  milk 
to  one  of  meal.  The  most  economical  gains  are  made  in  chickens  when  skim 
milk  is  fed  both  ways,  i.  e.,  as  a  drink  and  added  to  the  grain  mixture.  Skim 
milk  is  also  perhaps  the  best  food  for  producing  the  desirable  white  skin  in 
chickens.  (Commercial  meat  scrap  is  of  equal  value  and  may  be  substituted 
when  milk  cannot  be  obtained). 

Insects  and  Bugs. — In  the  summer  the  hens  get  protein  by  eating  insects, 
bugs,  grasshoppers  and  such  things.  During  the  winter  months  they  must 
be  given  feeds  to  take  the  place  of  these,  such  as:  cut  bone,  meat  scraps 
and  animal  meal.  The  scraps  and  meal  may  be  mixed  with  the  mash  but  green 
cut  bone  is  usually  fed  by  itself.  Feed  one-half  to  three-quarter  pounds  of 
meal  or  meat  scrap  to  twelve  to  fifteen  hens. 

Cut  Bone. — Hens  under  like  conditions,  with  fresh  cut,  green  bone  added 
to  their  feed,  will  lay  nearly  twice  as  many  eggs  in  the  winter  season  and  a 
third  more  right  in  the  summer  season  than  they  will  without  it.  Cut 
bone  is  fresh  bone  shaved  into  thin  pieces  by  a  bone  cutter.  If  the  bone 
has  considerable  meat  on  it  all  the  better  for  the  meat  and  bone  together  is 
excellent  for  producing  eggs.  Cut  bone  must  be  obtained  regularly  as  it  can- 
not be  kept  sweet  long.  If  it  is  not  sweet,  bowel  trouble  may  result.  When 
first  beginning  to  feed,  give  one-half  pound  to  twenty  hens,  then  double  the 
amount.  Meat  is  likely  to  be  loosening  to  the  bowels  at  first  so  the  hens 
should  be  watched  carefully  and  not  fed  too  much.  When  they  are  used  to  it  it 
may  be  kept  constantly  before  them. 

Fats. — Ten  percent  of  an  egg  is  fat.  Fat  is  made  from  starch.  Grains 
contain  a  great  deal  of  starch,  especially  corn.  Wheat,  milo,  sorghum, 
buckwheat,  are  also  fat-producing  foods. 

Corn. — Chickens  can  readily  digest  corn  whether  fed  cracked  or  whole  or 
as  corn  meal  and  whether  fed  moist  or  dry.  If  the  grain  is  finely  ground  it  is 
usually  best  to  moisten  it  before  feeding.  Corn  is  fattening  and  heating.  If 
too  much  is  fed  it  will  produce  fat  instead  of  eggs.  It  should  be  balanced  with 
linseed  meal,  bone,  meat,  gluten,  and  nitrogenous  feeds,  for  corn  is  deficient 
in  nitrogen.  If  corn  is  fed  to  hens  having  plenty  of  exercise,  that  secure 
insects  and  green  feed,  much  more  satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained  than 
when  it  is  fed  to  the  same  fowls  closely  confined.  It  may  be  fed  largely  in 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  293 

cold  climates  during  winter,  but  should  not  be  fed  much  during  the  summer. 
One  should  be  careful  not  to  feed  enough  corn  to  make  the  hens  too  fat  as 
they  will  become  lazy  and  will  not  lay  eggs. 

Wheat. — Wheat  is  believed  to  be  the  safest  grain  to  feed  alone.  It  is  too 
fattening  when  fed^alone  but  not  as  fattening  as  corn.  When  this  grain  is 
fed  it,  should  be  supplemented  by  some  skim  milk  or  meat  feed  to  increase 
the  amount  of  protein.  Wheat  is  not  as  valuable  for  fattening  as  corn  but 
is  much  better  for  growth. 

Mineral  Matter. — The  10  percent  of  mineral  matter  of  an  egg  is  lime. 
This  is  used  for  the  shell.  Hens  can  usually  get  enough  lime  in  the  sand  and 
grit  they  pick  up  in  the  summer  to  supply  themselves  during  that  time,  but  in 
winter  this  element  must  be  supplied.  Crushed  oyster  shell,  crushed  bone, 
ground  rock,  sand,  old  mortar  and  fine  gravel  all  supply  lime.  One  of  these 
elements  should  be  kept  where  the  hens  have  access  to  it  at  all  times.  Crushed 
bone  is  generally  believed  to  be  the  best  and  oyster  shell  to  be  the  most  un- 
desirable as  it  seems  to  injure  the  alimentary  tract  of  the  fowls.  Feeding 
ground  rock,  ground  bone  or  sand  does  not  do  this. 

Green  Feed. — Hens  must  have  green  feed  to  keep  them  healthy  and  in 
good  condition  and  to  make  them  lay.  When  the  ground  is  covered  with 
snow,  green  feed  must  be  given  them.  Anything  that  is  relished  by  the  fowls 
is  good.  Cooked  potatoes,  cooked  turnips,  beets,  cabbages,  steamed  clover, 
or  alfalfa  hay  are  fine  for  this  purpose.  In  feeding  vegetables  hang  them  up 
high  enough  to  make  the  hens  jump  for  them.  Exercise  is  good  for  laying 
hens. 

Sprouted  Oats. — As  a  protein  or  egg-producing  feed,  oats  rank  much 
higher  than  corn  and  contain  more  fat  than  wheat.  Its  high  proportion  of 
hull  to  kernel  makes  it  bulky  and  unpalatable.  Sprouting  overcomes  this 
difficulty,  and  also  furnishes  the  green  feed  so  essential.  Oats  can  be  sprouted 
and  fed  at  4  to  6  inches  high  more  economically  than  roots  or  vegetables  can 
be  produced.  The  time  required  for  the  growth  is  short,  the  amount  of  suc- 
culent or  green  material  is  large  and  increased  egg  production  is  invariably 
the  result.  One  hundred  pounds  of  oats  can  be  increased  to  350  or  400  pounds 
of  succulent  feed. 

Oat-Sprouting  Cabinet. — Cabinet  is  thirty  inches  square  and  five  feet 
high  Wooden  trays  two.  inches  deep  and  thirty  inches  square  are  made  to  fit 
this  rack  and  slide  in  and  out  on  cleats  nailed  to  each  side  of  rack.  Cleats  are 
placed  about  eight  or  ten  inches  apart.  Gimlet  holes  are  bored  in  the  bottom 
of  each  tray  to  drain  off  the  water.  Rack  is  placed  in  basement  or  cellar. 
Oats  are  soaked  over  night  and  the  next  morning  they  are  spread  out  on 
the  trays  about  one  and  one  half  inches  deep.  The  oats  are  sprinkled  each 
day.  No  artificial  heat  is  used  so  there  is  no  trouble  from  mold.  In  any  case 
this  can  be  avoided  by  stirring  them  on  the  second  day.  Oats  are  ready  for 
use  in  about  six  days.  This  is  a  cheap  and  easy  way  to  supply  green  winter 
feed.  (See  illustration.) 


294  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Miscellaneous  Feeds. — (See  "Mustard."  Learn  about  its  egg-producing 
qualities.) 

Variety  is  Important. — A  hen  likes  variety  and  if  she  does  not  have  it  she 
will  not  lay  eggs.  Grain  alone  is  not  sufficient.  She  must  be  given  different 
kinds  of  feeds  so  that  she  will  relish  each  kind. 

Egg  Rations. 

Ration  1. 

Scratch  Food.  Mash  (ground  food). 

In  Winter —  1  part  bran 

1  part  wheat  1  part  middlings   (shorts) 

2  parts  corn  1  part  cornmeal 

In  Summer —  1  part  commercial  beef  scrap. 

2  parts  wheat 
1  part  corn 

Ration  2. 

Scratch  Food.  Mash. 

In  Summer —  Ground  oats 

1  part  corn  Buttermilk    or    sour    skim    milk   as    a 

2  parts  wheat  drink. 

In  Winter — 

2  parts  corn 
1  part  wheat 

Ration  3. 

Scratch  Food.  Mash  (ground  food). 

In  Winter —  6  parts  cornmeal 

6  parts  wheat  6  parts  middlings 

3  parts  corn  3  parts  bran 

3  parts  oats  1  part  alfalfa  meal 

3  parts  buckwheat  1  part  oil  meal 

In  Summer —  5  parts  beef  scrap. 

6  parts  wheat 
6  parts  corn 
3  parts  oats 

Ration  4. 

Scratch  Food.  Mash. 

Early  morning  and  night  cracked  corn. 3  parts  bran 
At  noon  equal  parts  wheat  and  oats.      1  part  middlings 

1  part  corn  meal 
1  part  meat  scrap 

Occasionally  1  part  oil  meal  is  added  to 
this  ration. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  295 

Ration  5. 

Scratch  Food.  Mash. 

In  Summer —  4  parts  bran 

1  part  corn  8  parts  shorts 

2  parts  wheat  8  parts  corn  meal 

In  Winter —  8  parts  ground  oats 

1  part  corn  8  parts  beef  scrap 

1  part  wheat  4  parts  gluten  meal 

1  part  oil  meal 

Ration  6. 

Scratch  Food.  Mash. 

6  parts  corn  2  parts  bran 

6  parts  wheat  1  part  corn  meal 

4  parts  oats  1  part  gluten  meal 

2  parts  barley  1  part  ground  oats 
1  part  kafir  corn  1  part  middlings 

1  part  buckwheat  1  part  beef  scrap. 

Ration  7. 

For  the  production  of  eggs,  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station  recom- 
mends the  following  ration: 

Cotton  seed  meal .  .  .  . 25  Parts 

Corn  meal 30  Parts 

Wheat  bran 30  Parts 

Wheat  shorts 15  Parts 

A  little  salt  may  be  put  into  this  ration ;  one  pound  to  the  hundred,  is 
advisable. 

This  mash  should  be  put  into  clean,  dry  hoppers  in  dry  sheds.  If  the 
mash  is  dry,  the  hens  will  not  eat  too  much  of  it.  They  should  have  access 
to  it  at  all  times. 

A  grain  mixture  also  should  be  given  the  laying  hens.    This  mixture 
may  well  be : 

Corn  2  Parts 

Wheat   2  Parts 

Oats    1  Part 

HOW  TO  MAKE  HENS  LAY  IN  WINTER. 
(Practical  Suggestions  Gathered  from  the  Best  Poultry  Raisers  in  the  World.) 

To  have  winter  eggs,  duplicate  spring  conditions.    Give  the  hens  a  home. 
Depend  on  pullets  for  winter  egg  production. 

House  the  hens  properly.  Have  an  open  front  poultry  house  facing  the 
south.  Have  plenty  of  ventilation  but  prevent  drafts. 


296  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Supply  a  nest  for  every  four  or  five  hens.  Keep  the  nests  clean  and  free 
from  vermin. 

Gather  the  eggs  regularly — at  least  once  each  day. 

Give  the  hens  a  dust  bath.  Laying  hens  must  have  their  morning  dust 
bath  if  they  are  to  lay  the  maximum  number  of  eggs  through  the  winter.  It 
is  a  necessary  luxury  for  them.  By  its  use  they  are  enabled  to  rid  themselves 
of  mites  and  to  remove  all  scales  and  dirt  from  the  skin.  Lice  and  mites  do 
their  greatest  injury  to  the  fowls  at  night,  while  on  the  roost.  Instinctively 
they  look  for  a  place  to  dust  in  the  morning.  Do  not  force  the  hens  to  dust 
in  the  droppings  or  feed  litter.  During  the  summer  they  usually  find  their 
own  dusting  place  such  as  the  road  or  in  the  shade  of  trees  and  shrubbery,  but 
in  winter  it  must  be  provided  for  them.  Nail  an  old  grocery  box  in  one  corner 
of  the  house.  Elevate  it  above  the  floor  so  that  it  will  not  become  filled  with 
straw  or  litter  and  put  in  six  or  eight  inches  of  dusting  material.  A  little 
slaked  lime  added  to  it  would  not  hurt  anything. 

Give  the  hens  some  ground  mustard  in  their  feed  if  they  are  not  laying. 
It  will  work  like  magic.  Look  up  "mustard"  for  feeding. 

Feed  a  mash  once  a  day.    The  afternoon  is  a  good  time  to  feed  it 

Provide  plenty  of  grit  and  ground  oyster  shells. 

Feed  about  three  pounds  of  succulent  food,  such  as  sprouted  oats,  daily. 

Do  not  allow  birds  out  of  their  house  when  there  is  snow  on  the  ground. 

Feed  balanced  rations,  those  carrying  the  proper  proportion  of  protein, 
carbohydrates  and  fats. 

Feed  evenly  and  regularly,  not  a  feast  today  and  a  famine  tomorrow. 

Feed  scratch  grains  morning  and  evening.  Scatter  the  grain  in  the  litter. 
Birds  need  exercise. 

Provide  fresh,  warm  drinking  water.     Clean  the  water  dishes  every  day. 

Nests. 

It  is  believed  that  there  is  no  other  one  factor  which  contributes  to  the 
great  total  of  bad  eggs  so  much  as  poor  nests.  On  most  farms  there  are  only 
about  eleven  nests  for  one  hundred  hens  and  these  nests  are  improperly 
located  and  dirty.  Such  a  situation  means  that  50%  of  the  fowls  must  seek 
nests  for  themselves.  This  50%  usually  seek  places  under  the  corn  crib, 
straw  stack,  in  the  horse  stable  or  out  in  the  weeds,  and  these  are  the  very 
places  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  vigorous  bacterial  growth  flourishing 
upon  the  moisture  and  warmth.  As  a  result,  when  a  nest  full  of  such  eggs  is 
found,  fifty  to  eighty  per  cent  of  them  have  already  developed  into  seconds, 
blood  rings  and  rots. 

Many  farmers  think  that  even  though  good  nests  are  provided  the  hens 
will  not  utilize  them,  that  the  hens  prefer  to  choose  their  own  nests.  This  is 
true  in  some  instances.  However,  it  has  been  found  that  on  farms  where  one 
nest  is  provided  for  every  four  or  five  hens,  95%  of  the  eggs  are  laid  in  them. 
Of  course,  the  nests  must  be  clean  and  free  from  vermin.  It  yields  no  profit 
to  the  farmer  when  the  hens  lay  well  but  he  is  not  able  to  find  the  eggs. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  297 

Molting. 

If  the  hens  are  to  go  into  the  winter  in  the  best  laying  condition,  they  must 
molt  early  so  that  their  new  plumage  will  be  grown  before  cold  weather  begins. 
Henry  Van  Dreser  is  the  originator  of  the  method  for  encouraging  fowls  to 
molt  early.  This  method  consists  in  feeding  the  hens  very  lightly  for  about  two 
weeks  to  stop  egg  production  and  reduce  their  weight,  and  then  feeding  them 
heavily  on  feed  suitable  for  the  formation  of  feathers.  This  causes  the  hens 
to  molt  more  rapidly  and  more  uniformly  and  they  enter  the  winter  egg  laying 
season  in  better  condition  than  fowls  fed  continually  during  the  molting  period 
on  an  egg  ration.  The  fowls  should  receive  more  nitrogeneous  matter  during 
the  molting  period  whether  the  Van  Dreser  method  is  employed  or  not.  The 
addition  of  linseed  meal  and  more  animal  feed  to  the  ration  will  assist  in  the 
production  of  a  new  coat  of  feathers. 

RAISING  CHICKENS. 
(Including  Valuable  Suggestions  on  Using  an  Incubator  and  Brooder.) 

Selection  and  Care  of  Breeding  Stock. — It  is  necessary  to  have  healthy, 
vigorous  breeding  stock  to  be  successful  in  raising  chickens.  Put  only  the  most 
vigorous  and  best  grown  birds  into  the  breeding  yards.  Have  each  bird  free 
from  any  serious  deformity  and  full  of  life  and  energy.  No  bird  should  be  used 
for  breeding  purposes  that  does  not  have  a  perfect  record  for  health,  neither 
should  one  be  used  that  does  not  have  good  digestive  powers,  as  they  are  likely 
to  transmit  these  weak  tendencies  to  their  offspring.  Chicks  hatched  from  eggs 
of  puny  stock  seldom  get  beyond  their  infancy,  and  when  they  do  they  amount 
to  very  little.  Pullets  are  not  usually  as  good  for  breeders  as  the  year  old  hens, 
because  they  lay  more  eggs  during  the  early  winter  and  use  up  their  vitality  before 
the  breeding  season.  One  can  often  advantageously  retain  vigorous  hens  two 
to  four  years  old  in  the  breeding  yard.  In  fact,  hens  are  usually  better  than 
pullets  for  breeding  purposes  because  they  lay  bigger  eggs,  and,  since  they  do 
not  lay  as  many  eggs  as  the  pullets  during  the  fall  and  winter,  they  should  be 
in  better  physical  condition  in  the  spring  than  pullets  to  give  strong,  vigorous, 
good-sized  chicks.  Choose  a  male  bird  that  is  young  and  active.  The  rule  is 
to  breed  older  males  to  younger  females  and  vice  versa.  An  early  hatched 
cockerel  that  is  well  developed  is  generally  satisfactory,  or  a  two-year-old  cock, 
or  a  good  vigorous  yearling  may  be  chosen.  Give  the  hens  used  for  breeding 
purposes  the  best  care  possible,  provide  them  with  large  runs  and  do  not  force 
them  for  heavy  egg  production  during  the  early  winter.  This  lowers  their 
vitality  and  they  will  not  be  as  good  for  breeding  purposes.  The  hens  should 
not  be  too  fat,  for  fat  hens  as  a  rule  will  not  lay  many  fertile  eggs  and  chicks 
hatched  from  their  eggs  are  usually  weak.  Do  not  let  them  get  lousy.  Use 
your  lice  powders  freely.  Provide  a  dusting  bath  in  a  dry  place. 

If  breeders  are  confined,  feed  them  a  varied  supply  of  meat,  grains  and 
green  feeds  and  give  them  plenty  of  fresh  air.  The  green  feed  helps  to  keep 
the  fowls  in  good  breeding  condition.  Free  range  is  usually  better  than  con- 
finement in  the  production  of  hatchable  eggs,  as  it  is  easier  to  keep  up  the  vitality 


298  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

of  the  stock.    More  males  must  be  kept  if  the  birds  are  on  free  range  than  if 
they  are  yarded. 

Number  of  Females  to  One  Male. — (For  confined  fowls)  Light,  active 
breeds,  such  as  Leghorns  and  Minorcas  under  ordinary  conditions,  use  one 
male  to  a  pen  of  twelve  to  fifteen  females.  Medium-sized  breeds,  such  as 
Plymouth  Rocks  and  Rhode  Island  Reds,  use  one  male  to  ten  or  twelve  females. 
Heavy  breeds,  such  as  Cochins  and  Brahmas,  use  one  male  to  no  more  than 
ten  females.  When  twenty  or  thirty  females  are  kept  in  one  flock,  keep  two 
males.  Allow  one  to  run  with  the  hens  one  day  and  the  other  the  next. 
Keep  the  male  not  with  the  hens,  in  a  coop.  Mate  the  hens  ten  days  before 
eggs  are  needed  for  hatching. 

Eggs  for  Hatching. 

1.  Gather  the  eggs  every  day.     Do  not  let  them  get  chilled.     Keep  them 
in  a  room  where  the  temperature  is  between  fifty  and  seventy  degrees,  if 
possible.    A  greater  strength  of  germ  and  higher  fertility  is  observed  in  eggs 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  seventy  degrees  than  those  kept  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature. 

2.  Eggs  for  hatching  should  be  kept  at  a  uniform  temperature  and  turned 
daily. 

3.  Select  eggs  of  uniform  size.     Discard  eggs  that  are  small,  abnormal 
or  poorly  shaped. 

4.  Eggs  that  have  thin  or  very  porous  appearing  shells  should  not  be  used. 

5.  Use    fresh   eggs    as    nearly   as   possible.     Never    use   them    over   two 
weeks  old. 

6.  Select  uniformly  large  eggs  for  hatching  as  it  is  one  of  the  quickest 
ways  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  offspring  and  increase  the  size  of  the  eggs. 

7.  Clean  the  dirty  eggs  by  rubbing  them  lightly  with  a  damp  cloth.     Be 
careful  not  to  rub  off  any  more  of  the  natural  bloom  of  the  egg  than  is  necessary. 

8.  Do  not  allow  broody  hens  to  set  on  the  nests  all  day.     It  may  hurt  the 
hatching  qualities. 

9.  Do  not  mix  eggs  of  the  smaller  and  larger  breeds  as  the  eggs  of  the 
smaller  breeds  often  hatch  earlier  than  those  of  the  large  breeds. 

10.  All  hatching  should  be  concluded  by  May  15th.  and  the  male  birds  con- 
fined for  the  remainder  of  the  summer. 

Number  of  Eggs  to  Hen. — This  depends  on  the  season,  the  size  of  the 
hen,  and  the  size  of  the  eggs.  The  average  number  for  spring  is  thirteen.  No 
more  than  eleven  would  be  given  the  same  hen  in  winter.  After  the  middle  of 
May  she  can  handle  fifteen.  Give  less  than  she  can  cover  rather  than  more.  If 
too  many  are  given  they  may  become  chilled. 

Testing  Eggs. — Test  each  setting  and  remove  the  infertile  eggs.  This 
gives  a  better  chance  to  those  left.  If  several  hens  have  been  set  on  the  same 
day  and  there  are  many  infertile  eggs,  some  of  the  hens  can  be  reset.  Test 
the  eggs  about  the  6th  or  7th  day  in  a  dark  room  or  at  night  when  the  coop  is 
dark.  Hold  the  egg  against  the  hole  in  the  side  of  the  box.  This  allows  the 
light  to  shine  through  the  egg  and  show1  its  condition.  An  infertile  egg  is  clear, 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  299 

while  a  fertile  egg  will  show  a  small  dark  spot,  a  spider  like  formation  having  a 
center  with  blood  veins  or  ligaments  leading  outward.  This  formation  will  float 
as  the  egg  is  turned.  The  infertile  eggs  may  be  used  for  cooking  purposes. 

Home-made  Testers. — Take  a  large  shoe  box  or  any  box  large  enough  to 
go  over  a  lamp.  Cut  a  hole  a  little  larger  than  a  quarter  in  the  bottom  of  the 
box  so  that  when  the  box  is  placed  over  the  lamp,  the  hole  comes  opposite  the 
blaze.  Cut  a  hole  the  size  of  a  dollar  in  the  top  of  the  box  to  allow  the  heat  to 
escape.  If  possible  get  the  colored  egg  charts  from  the  Poultry  Division,  Bureau 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  study  them  in  testing  your  eggs. 

Magnifying  Tester. — To  make  this  tester  only  the  following  articles  are 
necessary:  Ordinary  cardboard,  oat  meal  box,  round  paper  box  about  the  size 
of  a  tomato  can ;  a  few  brass  clinch  rivets ;  and  a  small  handled  magnifying  or 
"reading"  glass  from  three  to  five  inches  in  diameter.  Make  as  follows :  Cut  a 
slot  down  one  side  from  the  top  of  the  box  to  within  about  two  and  one-quarter 
inches  of  the  bottom.  The  slot  should  be  just  wide  enough  to  admit  the  handle 
of  the  reading  glass.  Next  cut  a  length  from  the  smaller  box  open  at  both  ends 
two  and  one-quarter  inches  long  and  slip  it  inside  the  larger  box,  (box  with 
slot).  Then  put  in  the  glass  and  another  section  of  smaller  box,  open  at  each 
end.  Make  this  section  solid  with  the  rivets  put  through  the  sides  of  the  outside 
box.  Make  a  small,  smooth  edged  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  blacken 
the  inside.  This  makes  the  tester  complete  and  a  revelation. 

Natural  Incubation. — If  setting  hens  are  given  proper  care  and  are 
handled  with  a  little  system,  they  will  produce  a  large  number  of  chickens  at  a 
comparatively  small  expense.  They  should  be  given  comfortable  and  convenient 
quarters  in  which  to  set.  Nest  boxes  should  be  constructed  so  that  they  may  be 
opened  or  closed  when  necessary.  A  good  way  to  prepare  a  nest  is  to  cut  some 
sod  three  inches  thick ;  put  this  in  the  bottom  of  the  nest  box  and  cover  it  with 
a  good  thickness  of  straw  or  sweet  hay.  Put  the  nest  in  a  quiet  place  where  the 
hen  will  not  be  disturbed. 

Insect  Powder. — It  is  advisable  to  sprinkle  both  hen  and  nest  with  insect 
powder  before  setting  her.  This  should  be  repeated  once  a  week  throughout 
the  setting  period.  To  apply  the  powder,  hold  the  hen  by  the  feet,  head  down, 
working  the  powder  well  into  the  feathers.  Give  special  attention  to  regions 
around  the  vent  and  under  the  wings. 

Testing  Hen. — A  hen  should  be  tested  before  being  set.  To  do  this  put 
her  in  a  nest  she  cannot  get  off.  Put  a  china  egg  or  two  under  her.  On  the 
second  day,  toward  evening,  go  quietly  in  where  she  is  setting,  leave  some  water 
and  feed,  open  the  front  of  the  nest  and  let  her  come  off  when  ready.  If  she 
returns  to  the  nest  after  feeding,  it  is  safe  to  put  the  eggs  under  her.  The 
hens  are  less  likely  to  become  restless  if  the  nests  are  darkened  a  little. 

Care  of  Setting  Hen. — If  several  hens  are  setting  at  the  same  time,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  they  come  off  the  nest  just  once  a  day  to  receive  feed 
and  water.  If  some  do  not  care  to  come  off  they  should  be  taken  off  and  all 
of  them  should  be  put  back  on  before  the  eggs  have  time  to  chill— say  in  20 
minutes  in  ordinary  weather.  If  a  large  number  are  setting  in  a  room,  it  is 


300  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

better  to  let  them  off  four  or  six  at  a  time.  Examine  the  eggs  and  nests  and 
clean  them.  Remove  all  broken  eggs  and  wash  soiled  ones.  Any  soiled  nesting 
material  should  be  removed  and  replaced  by  clean  straw.  Dirty  nests  soon  become 
infested  with  lice  and  mites  and  this  makes  the  hens  uneasy.  If  the  nest  is  in- 
fested with  mites,  the  hen  will  generally  stand  over  rather  than  sit  on  the  eggs. 
Many  eggs  laid  in  the  late  winter  and  early  spring  are  infertile  so  it  is  advisable 
to  set  several  hens  at  the  same  time.  The  eggs  should  be  tested  after  they  have 
been  under  the  hens  from  five  to  seven  days,  depending  on  the  color  and  thick- 
ness of  the  shells  White  shelled  eggs  are  easier  to  test  than  brown  shelled  ones. 
The  infertile  and  dead  germed  eggs  should  be  removed  and  the  fertile  eggs  put 
back  under  the  hen.  When  the  eggs  are  tested,  it  is  often  possible  to  put  the 
eggs  that  several  hens  started  under  a  few  hens  and  to  use  the  others.  For 
example,  forty  eggs  are  set  under  four  hens  at  the  same  time,  ten  under  each. 
On  the  seventh  day  when  testing  we  find  that  thirteen  are  infertile.  This  leaves 
twenty-seven  to  be  reset.  We  put  these  under  three  hens  and  have  the  fourth 
hen  to  set  over  again  after  she  has  been  setting  only  seven  days.  Much  time  can 
be  saved  in  one's  hatching  operations  this  way. 

Feeding  Setting  Hens. — Setting  hens  should  be  fed  well.  Their  feed 
should  be  mostly  whole  grain  such  as  wheat,  oats  and  corn.  They  require  food 
for  their  bodily  maintenance.  Very  little  meat  or  vegetable  food  should  be 
given.  The  meat  food  would  be  inclined  to  make  them  want  to  quit  setting 
to  begin  laying  and  the  vegetable  food  would  tend  to  loosen  the  bowels. 
Feed  the  grain  in  hoppers  and  supply  fresh  water  in  a  clean  vessel. 

Taking  Chicks  from  Nest. — Chicks  should  be  taken  from  the  nest  about 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  first  ones  are  hatched.  They  generally  want  to  get 
out  from  under  the  hen  and  begin  moving  about  when  no  more  than  a  day  old. 
This  will  often  make  the  hen  restless  and  cause  her  to  leave  the  nest. 

Incubation. 

Incubators  vs.  Hens. — Incubators  as  a  rule  give  better  service  than  we 
think.  Most  people  expect  entirely  too  much  from  a  machine.  They  read  only 
about  the  big  hatches  as  the  failures  are  seldom  printed.  In  comparing  incubator 
hatches  with  those  of  hens,  we  forget  the  hens'  failures.  The  average  is  not  even 
kept  in  ^ind,  so  of  course,  we  are  disappointed  with  anything  less  than  a  90% 
hatch. 

There  is  no  way  of  knowing  just  how  many  of  the  eggs  set  under  hens 
hatch  out,  however,  we  believe  that  only  about  half  of  them  produce  strong  chicks 
and  only  about  half  of  those  live  to  market  size.  If  these  figures  are  at  all  near 
the  truth,  a  50%  incubator  hatch  should  be  satisfactory.  Hundreds  of  people 
report  50  to  80%  hatches  throughout  the  season.  Incubators  are  steadily  gain- 
ing in  popularity.  People  find  that  most  of  the  trouble  with  incubators  is  due 
to  carelessness  in  operation  rather  than  to  any  imperfection  of  the  machine. 
Since  complete  directions  come  with  the  machine,  we  shall  not  go  into  detail 
here  but  shall  give  you  a  few  points  to  keep  in  mind  when  using  an  incubator. 


POULTRY  RAISING-CHICKENS 


A  HOME  MADE  BROODER— CHEAP  A\n  !rH.<"Il\K 


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1.     F!r*l«M    Brooder.      2.     Top    to    Broodtr.      I.     Homt-niMlr    Proodrr. 
4.     B»«   C«ndl»r.      i    «nd    «.     Mtlhod.   of   K«rpin«   W.Ur   Clt.n. 

7.     Grain  Hopp»r.     8.     To*  M»rk«  for  Chlrk«-    S.     OnI-Sprenlln,   f»h- 
Inet. 


302  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

POINTS  TO  REMEMBER  IN  USING  AN  INCUBATOR  AND 

BROODER. 

(Gathered  from  the  World  Over.) 

1.  The  most  successful  incubator  operators  worry  the  least  about  their 
machines. 

2.  With  good  eggs  and  good  oil  in  the  lamp,  the  average  incubator  will  per- 
form its  work  without  much  outside  assistance  after  it  is  properly  started. 

3.  The  best  place  to  operate  an  incubator  is  in  a  dry,  well  ventilated  cellar. 

4.  The  cellar  should  contain  no  odors  of  decaying  vegetables,  should  have 
a  free  circulation  of  air,  and  should  not  vary  widely  in  temperature. 

5.  Never  have  an  incubator  in  a  room  where  the  sun  shines  while  hatch- 
ing is  going  on. 

6.  Keep  the  incubator  room  clean  and  well  ventilated. 

7.  Any  condition  surrounding  the  eggs  which   saps  their  vitality  makes 
them  more  subject  to  infection. 

8.  Guard  against  the  eggs  being  infected  with  bacteria  or  moulds.     This 
is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  poor  results  in  incubation. 

9.  Disinfect  the  incubator  each  time  before  putting  in  the  eggs.     To  do 
this,  scrub  it  thoroughly  with  coal-tar  disinfectant ;  hot  water  and  creosol  soap, 
or  with  a  solution  of  one  gill  of  creolin  in  eight  and  one-half  parts  of  soft  water. 
Scrub  each  part  thoroughly,  especially  the  egg  trays. 

10.  Dry  the  machine  carefully  before  putting  eggs  into  it. 

11.  Disinfect  the  eggs  by  dipping  them  in  a  solution  made  of  one  gill  of 
creolin  in  eight  and  one-half  quarts  of  rain  water.     Make  a  new  solution  each 
time  you  have  a  new  batch  of  eggs  to  disinfect.     Allow  them  to  drain  before 
putting  them  into  the  incubator. 

12.  Careless  use  of  disinfectants  is  detrimental,  especially  using  too  much 
of  them. 

13.  Moisture  is  necessary  to  the  best  results  in  artificial  incubation.     Moisture 
machines  produce  100%  better  hatches  by  test. 

14.  Too  much  moisture  is  as  injurious  as  too  little. 

15.  -  The  most  common  cause  of  poor  results  and    failure  in  incubation  is 
the  use  of  eggs  of  low  vitality. 

16.  Eggs  only  a  few  days  old  are  the  best. 

17.  Use  eggs  from  stock  that  has  not  been  over  fed  on  green  or  animal  feeds. 

18.  Turning  and  cooling  the  eggs  is  essential  in  obtaining  a  good  hatch. 

19.  Within  from  five  to  seven  days  the  eggs  should  be  tested.     (See  Egg 
Testing.) 

20.  See  that  your  air  space  is  correct  at  each  stage  of  the  hatch. 

21.  Do  not  turn  the  eggs  until  the  third  day  or  after  the  eighteenth  day. 

22.  The  best  way  to  turn  the  eggs  is  by  hand. 

23.  It  is  necessary  to  turn  the  eggs  half  over.,. 

24.  Do  not  open   the  machine  unless    absolutely  necessary  except  when 
turning  and  cooling  the  eggs. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  303 

25.  After  the  first  shell  is  pipped  close  the  egg  drawer  and  do  not  open  it 
unless  for  a  very  urgent  reason  until  all  the  chicks  are  hatched. 

26.  Do  not  try  to  help  a  chick  out  of  its  shell.     If  it  is  not  strong  enough 
to  get  out  alone  it  is  not  worth  saving. 

27.  It  is  but  natural  for  the  chicks  to  struggle  and  gasp  when  they  first 
come  from  the  shell  as  it  gives  them  strength.     Do  not  help  them  at  this  time. 

28.  When  a  very  good  hatch  is  coming  off,  the  chicks  will  sometimes  gather 
at  the  glass  in  front  and  pile  up.     To  prevent  this  put  a  cloth  over  the  glass  and 
thus  darken  the  machine.    Never  open  the  machine  to  take  out  a  few  chicks. 
Wait  until  hatch  is  over.     Never  take  any  out  unless  there  is  danger  of  losing 
some  chicks. 

29.  Leave  the  chicks  in  the  incubator  from  24  to  36  hours.     If  they  are 
left  that  long  no  harm  will  come  to  them. 

30.  "My  best  success  has  always  been  with  a  temperature  ranging  not  over 
102  the  first  week,  then  103  to  the  time  of  hatching  when  I  allowed  the  tem- 
perature to  go  as  high  as  105." 

31.  Follow  the  directions  with  your  machine  very  closely  as  the  manufac- 
turer knows  the  way  that  that  particular  machine  should  be  run  to  produce  the 
best  results. 

Brooders. 

1.  A  brooder  is  a  necessity  for  those  who  use  incubators. 

2.  Keep  the  brooder  disinfected.     Disinfect  it  between  each  brood  of  chicks. 
Have  the  bottom  covered  with  good  clean  straw. 

3.  Operate  the  brooder  a  day  or  two  before  putting  chicks  into  it. 

4.  Do  not  overcrowd  the  brooder.     It  is  the  worst  mistake  one  can  make. 
Have  the  chicks  comfortable. 

5.  The  capacity  of  a  brooder  is  generally  greatly  overestimated  by  the 
manufacturers. 

6.  Have  the  brooder  regulated  at  a  uniform  temperature  day  and  night. 
Low  and  irregular  temperatures  in  brooders  have  caused  more  disease  and  deaths 
than  any  other  one  thing. 

7.  The  temperature  after  the  first  day  or  two  should  be  governed  by  the 
action  of  the  chicks,  not  by  the  thermometer. 

8.  Crowding  of  chicks  to  outside  of  brooder,  panting  or  breathing  hard, 

indicate  too  much  heat. 

9.  Crowding  and  huddling  about  the  heater  indicates  a  need  of  more  heat. 
10.     When  the  chicks  spread  out  comfortably  at  night,  midway  between  the 

heater  and  brooder  walls,  or  just  inside  the  fringe,  where  a  hover  is  used,  it 
signifies  a  right  amount  of  heat. 

11      The  chicks  should  not  be  allowed  to  huddle  together  outside  the  brooder. 

12.  If  the  chicks  are  not  supplied  with  artificial  heat  they  will  crowd  no 
matter  how  few  are  in  the  brooder. 

13  Do  not  take  the  heat  away  from  the  chicks  too  soon.  Keep  the  brooder 
heated  until  they  are  far  enough  developed  that  they  do  not  go  under  the  hover. 


304  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Care  and  Feeding  of  Chicks. 

Care. — If  an  early  maturity  is  to  be  obtained  with  chicks,  it  is  necessary 
to  give  them  a  good  start.  They  should  be  given  outdoor  runs  on  dry  ground 
and  grass  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  pleasant.  They  should  be  kept  moving 
and  not  penned  up  in  a  small  space  where  exercise  is  impossible. 

Ground. — Exercise  is  necessary.  They  can  and  should  be  made  to  exer- 
cise by  putting  rolled  oats  in  fine  litter.  Chicks  should  be  kept  inside  on  rainy 
or  damp  days  or  when  the  dew  is  heavy  on  the  grass.  Dampness  often  causes 
leg  weakness  and  bowel  trouble.  They  should  be  kept  free  from  lice. 

Feeding. — Feeding  is  an  important  factor  in  the  successful  raising  of 
chicks.  For  the  first  thirty-six  hours  no  feed  should  be  given  at  all  as  the  yolk 
of  the  egg  is  absorbed,  furnishing  sufficient  nourishment.  The  two  systems  in 
vogue  for  feeding  chicks,  as  well  as  older  fowls,  are  dry  and  wet  feeding.  The 
first  is  simpler  and  easier  and  beginners  are  usually  more  successful  with  this 
one.  More  care  should  be  given  in  feeding  chicks  than  in  feeding  older  fowls 
because  the  chicks  know  less  about  what  is  good  for  them  and  they  are  liable 
to  overeat. 

Feeds. 

1.  Egg  and  Bread  Crumbs. — A  good  feed  for  the  first  meal  is  hard-boiled 
egg — the  infertile  eggs  from  the  incubator  may  be  used  for  this — chopped  fine, 
shell  and  all,  mixed  with  three  times  its  amount  of  stale  bread  crumbs  or  bread 
and  milk. 

2.  Bread  and  Milk. — Another  good  feed  for  chicks  is  stale  bread  soaked 
in  whole  or  skim  milk.     The  milk  should  be  squeezed  out  until  the  mass  crumbles 
easily.    This  is  excellent  for  the  first  week  or  so. 

3.  Oatmeal  and  Bran. — Oatmeal  and  dry  bran  where  they  pick  it  is  good. 

4.  Green  Feed. — Green  feed  must  be  given.    If  the  chicks  can  get  grass 
they  will  supply  themselves  but  if  not  they  must  be  given  some  that  can  be  easily 
assimilated.     Finely  cut  grass,  onion  tops  chopped  fine,  sprouted  oats,  lettuce 
leaves  or  boiled  vegetables  are  all  good. 

5.  Grain  Feed. — It  is  well  to  begin  grain  feed  when  the  chicks  are  a  few 
days  old.     Feed  it  in  hoppers.     Never  feed  any  wet,  sloppy  feeds  as  it  causes 
bowel  trouble.     Several  good  cracked  grain  feeds  are  given.     Two  parts  "pin- 
head"  oatmeal,  two  parts  wheat,  one  part  corn,  one  part  millet  seed  and  one  part 
rice. 

6.  Egg  and  Rolled  Oats. — A  good  feed  for  the  first  two  or  three  days  is 
made  by  boiling  the  infertile  eggs  for  about  one-half  hour  and  mixing  these 
together  with  about  six  times  their  bulk  of  rolled  oats.     The  eggs  are  put  through 
a  meat  chopper. 

7.  Egg  and  Corn  Bread. — A  good  feed  for  newly  hatched  chickens  is 
corn  bread  with  egg  in  it.    Until  they  are  a  month  old,  everything  fed  to  them 
should  be  cooked. 

8.  Cracked  Corn,  Millet  Seed,  Cracked  Wheat,  Oatmeal  and  Beef  Scrap. 
— Another  mixture  is:  4  pounds  cracked  corn,  2  pounds  millet  seed,  10  pounds 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  305 

cracked  wheat,  two  pounds  "Pinhead"  (granulated)  oatmeal  or  cracked  hulled 
oats,  and  one  pound  pulverized  beef  scrap. 

9.  Cracked  Corn,  Oatmeal  and  Millet  Seed.— Another  mixture  is :  Steel 
cut  oatmeal,  fine  cracked  corn  and  millet  seeds. 

Frequency  of  Feeding.— Feed  young  chicks  a  very  little  at  a  time.  They 
should  be  fed  at  least  five  times  a  day,  once  early  In  the  morning,  then  just 
before  they  are  put  away  for  the  night  and  three  times  in  the  intervening 
period.  It  is  well  the  first  two  weeks  to  feed  three  meals  of  soft  feed  and  two 
of  hard,  and  after  two  weeks  to  feed  two  of  soft  and  three  of  hard.  Do  not 
give  any  more  moistened  soft  feed  each  time  than  the  chicks  will  clean  up. 
The  feed  must  be  kept  sweet  and  clean  as  sour  feed  causes  looseness  of  the 
bowels  and  dysentery.  The  chicks  will  grow  faster  at  first  if  a  part  of  the  feed 
is  ground  than  if  just  cracked  grains  are  fed.  The  frequency  of  feeding  may 
be  decreased  to  three  times  a  day  after  the  chicks  are  six  weeks  old. 

Animal  Feed. — If  the  chicks  are  in  the  open  on  free  range  in  the  spring 
and  summer  they  pick  up  bugs  and  insects  which  will  help  supply  their  animal 
feed.  If  they  cannot  get  these  abundantly,  it  must  be  furnished  in  some  other 
form.  The  hard-boiled  eggs  will  be  sufficient  when  fed  to  the  youngest  chicks 
but  later  on  they  should  be  given  green  cut  bone  and  beef  scraps. 

Water. — Cool,  fresh  water  should  always  be  kept  before  the  chicks.  See 
that  the  water  basin  is  clean.  This  will  save  one  much  trouble  later.  If  the 
chicks  are  allowed  to  get  very  thirsty  and  then  fill  up  on  water  it  may  give 
them  bowel  trouble. 

Milk. — Milk  is  fine  for  young  chicks ;  it  is  highly  nutritious  and  promotes 
growth,  taking  the  place  of  other  animal  food  to  a  certain  extent.  Skim  milk 
is  excellent;  if  whole  milk  is  fed  it  is  better  to  dilute  it  with  one-third  or 
one-half  water. 

Grit. — Grit  is  a  necessity.  A  dish  of  it  in  the  form  of  fine  sand  and  grit 
should  always  be  before  the  chicks. 

Charcoal. — Charcoal  is  not  a  necessity  but  it  is  a  fine  thing  to  keep  them 
in  good  health.  It  is  also  well  to  give  charcoal,  if  the  chicks  are  not  thrifty, 
before  changing  the  feed  or  giving  medicine.  Most  people  keep  charcoal 
before  the  chicks  at  all  times. 

Exercise. — The  chicks  should  be  induced  to  exercise  from  the  very  first. 
Their  grain  feed  should  be  fed  in  the  litter  to  make  them  scratch  for  it.  If 
their  green  feed  is  a  cabbage  or  other  vegetable,  hang  it  up.  This  will  make 
them  jump.  Exercise  promotes  growth  and  health. 

Teach  Chicks  to  Roost. — Chicks  can  be  taught  to  roost  by  putting  the 
perches  near  the  floor  and  placing  with  them  two  old  hens  or  older  chicks1  that 
are  used  to  roosting.  If  this  is  not  effective  or  convenient,  place  the  chicks 
on  the  perches  after  dark  for  a  few  nights  and  they  will  learn  to  go  there  of 
their  own  accord.  It  is  often  advisable  to  teach  the  chicks  to  roost  when  eight 
to  twelve  weeks  of  age,  as  they  get  dirty  and  crowd  themselves  on  the  floor. 
If  wide  roosts — three  to  four  inches— are  used  there  is  little  danger  from 
crooked  breasts. 


306  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Toe-mark  Chicks. — The  successful  poultry  raiser  should  know  the  age  of 
his  birds.  It  is  strange  to  say  that  95%  of  the  farmers  have  no  definite  way 
of  determining  the  age  of  their  poultry.  When  a  farmer  markets  his  poultry, 
he  ought  to  have  some  positive  method  of  knowing  the  ages  of  the  birds  he  is 
selling.  Such  a  plan  would  greatly  decrease  the  number  of  yearling  hens  and 
pullets  which,  through  lack  of  system,  are  now  being  disposed  of  while  older 
birds  that  ought  to  be  sold  are  retained.  Eggs  are  conceded  to  be  the  greatest 
source  of  income  from  the  farm  poultry.  The  pullets  and  yearling  hens  will 
return  the  farmer  a  much  larger  profit  in  eggs  during  the  year  than  the  older 
hens.  Hens  are  kept,  as  a  rule,  at  a  good  profit  until  their  third  year  but 
after  that  they  are  seldom  profitable.  A  great  amount  of  money  will  be  saved 
if  more  attention  is  paid  to  keeping  a  record  on  the  ages  of  the  chickens. 

Several  methods  of  marking  poultry  are  used  by  different  poultry  raisers 
over  the  country  but  the  most  practical  one  for  the  farmers  is  that  of  toe- 
marking.  Instruments  for  toe-marking  are  sold  by  supply  houses  but  an 
ordinary  saddler's  punch  may  be  used  successfully.  The  illustration  given 
shows  sixteen  different  combinations  of  toe-marking.  If  just  one  mark  is 
used  for  all  chicks  hatched  in  a  given  year,  no  farmer  would  have  to  use  more 
than  three  or  four  of  these  marks,  but  if  he  desires  to  show  the  ages  more 
closely,  all  the  forms  might  be  useful.  The  chick  is  toe-marked  when  hatched. 
The  operation  is  simple  and  painless.  An  entire  hatch  may  be  marked  in  a 
very  short  time.  All  that  is  required  is  to  punch  the  web  of  the  foot.  (See 
illustration  for  combinations.) 

CAPONS  AND  CAPONIZING. 

The  Capon  Industry  is  increasing  every  year.      It  is  valuable  to  the  Farmer. 

A  capon  is  a  castrated  male  bird.  After  a  bird  is  caponized  it  becomes 
more  quiet,  the  comb  and  wattles  cease  to  grow,  it  is  more  readily  fattened 
and  the  plumage  becomes  glossy  and  heavy.  Caponizing  is  not  done  to  in- 
crease the  weight  so  much  as  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  flesh.  It  lengthens 
the  period  of  growth  and  the  flesh'  retains  that  tender,  sweet,  palatable  charac- 
ter so  characteristic  of  spring  chickens.  The  great  difference  in  flavor  between 
the  flesh  of  capons  and  other  fowls  is  not  realized  by  very  many,  but  in  local- 
ities where  it  is  known,  dressed  capons  bring  from  35  to  50  cents  a  pound. 
The  larger  the  bird  the  more  they  bring  a  pound.  They -often  show  great 
fondness  for  little  chicks  and  can  be  utilized  to  good  advantage  in  rearing 
broods  of  chickens.  Some  people  say  they  make  better  mothers  than  hens. 

Teaching  a  Capon  to  Mother  Chicks. — It  is  no  trouble  to  start  a  capon 
with  little  chicks  if  he  is  gentle.  For  best  results  have  a  small  yard  with  a 
coop  in  it.  The  capon  should  be  placed  in  this  yard  a  few  days  before  the 
chicks  are  to  be  given  him  so  he  will  get  used  to  it.  It  is  best  to  have  the 
chicks  about  a  week  old  if  the  capon  has  never  raised  chicks  before.  If  the 
coop  has  no  perches  in  it  the  bird  will  roost  squatting  on  the  floor.  Just  about 
dark  the  little  chicks  should  be  placed  under  his  wings  one  or  two  at  a  time. 
The  capon  will  not  object  to  this  but  rather  like  it  If  he  seems  restless  tickle 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS 


307 


LITTLE     HELEN     BEL'OY, 

CEDAR   VALE,   KANSAS. 

MAKING    A    CAPON. 


At  the  time  this  picture 
was  taken  Helen  was  only 
ten  years  old.  This  little 
girl  makes  spending  money 
by  working  birds  for  the 
neighbors.  She  gets 
cents  for  each  capon 


ten 
•he 


in  eaiy  for  her 
to  operate  on  fifty  in  one 
afternoon.  In  her  letter 
giving  us  the  right  to  u«e 
the  above  photograph  she 
say*: 

"I  learned  to  caponize 
when  I  w«i  nine  years  old. 
although  the  picture  was 
taken  when  I  was  ten.  and 
have  eaponlzed  successfully 
for  the  last  s*ven  seasons 
without  killing  a  bird.  How- 
ever, my  youngest  brother 
learned  to  caponize  success- 
fully when  only  seven  years 
old." 


308  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

him  under  the  chin  and  talk  to  him  in  a  soothing  voice  and  all  will  be  well. 
The  next  morning  the  birds  should  be  looked  after.  The  capon  will  usually 
be  hovering  the  little  fellows,  but  if  he  is  in  doubt,  standing  on  one  leg  and 
not  clucking  much,  they  should  be  taken  away  leaving  the  capon  alone  until 
night  when  the  chicks  should  be  put  under  him  again.  By  the  second  night 
the  most  obstinate  of  capons  will  be  ready  to  fight  for  the  brood.  When  a 
capon  has  once  been  taught  how  to  brood  he  can  be  given  a  brood  of  chicks 
with  perfect  safety. 

The  larger  breeds  such  as  the  Cochin,  Brahma,  Plymouth  Rock,  Langshan, 
or  Wyandotte  are  the  most  suitable  for  caponizing. 

When  to  Caponize. — Fowls  can  be  caponized  practically  any  time  in  the 
year.  However,  it  is  an  advantage  to  perform  the  operation  in  the  spring 
before  hot  weather  comes.  They  should  be  from  two  to  three  months  old  and 
weigh  about  two  pounds,  depending  upon  their  development.  Caponizing  is 
usually  done  about  the  time  the  cockerels  begin  to  exhibit  sexual  proclivities, 
that  is  about  the  time  they  begin  to  crow.  The  operation  is  comparatively 
painless  and  safe  as  but  from  two  to  five  per  cent  die  from  it.  Since  these  die 
by  bleeding  in  a  few  minutes,  they  are  still  excellent  for  table  use.  A  good  set 
of  tools  is  necessary  and  can  be  purchased  for  two  or  three  dollars.  A  com- 
plete set  of  instructions  comes  with  each  set  so  it  would  be  a  waste  of  space 
to  give  detailed  directions  here. 

After  caponizing,  give  the  bird  plenty  of  soft  feed  and  water  to  drink.  A 
capon  begins  eating  immediately  after  being  caponized  and  one  would  not 
think  that  any  radical  change  had  taken  place  in  his  nature.  He  should  be 
left  to  himself  as  he  is  his  own  doctor  for  the  time  being.  Two  or  three  days 
after  the  operation,  however,  it  is  well  to  look  the  bird  over  to  see  if  any  air 
has  gotten  under  the  skin,  causing  a  slight  swelling  or  "wind  puff".  If  one 
has  formed,  it  can  be  relieved  by  piercing  the  skin  at  one  side  of  the  swelling 
with  a  sharp  needle  and  gently  pressing  out  the  air.  Feed  capons  nourishing, 
not  fattening,  food,  thus  keeping  them  growing.  They  should  be  allowed  to 
grow  until  they  are  matured,  which  is  generally  one  year. 

Caponizing  has  not  been  widely  practiced  in  this  country  so  far  but  it  is 
steadily  gaining  in  favor.  Any  man  with  ordinary  intelligence  can  learn  to 
caponize  quickly  and  efficiently  in  a  short  time.  More  capons  appear  on  the 
market  each  year  and  never  fail  to  bring  a  very  high  price. 

Capons  should  be  fattened  for  about  three  weeks  before  they  are  sent  to 
market.  Put  them  in  a  small  yard  and  feed  them  two  or  three  times  a  day. 
They  can  be  fattened  on  one  of  the  rations  given  under  "Fattening  Poultry," 
or  on  the  following:  equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  ground  oats  and  corn  meal, 
moistened  with  milk  or  water. 

Dress  capons  so  they  can  be  distinguished  on  the  market.  A  good  way 
is  to  leave  the  head  and  hackle  feathers,  the  tail  feathers,  including  those  a 
little  way  up  the  back,  the  feathers  on  the  wings  to  the  second  joint,  and  those 
on  the  legs  halfway  up  the  thigh.  Also  leave  the  head  on  as  the  undeveloped 
comb  and  wattles  make  a  distinguishing  mark. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  309 

SYSTEMS  OF  FEEDING. 

(Including  Some  of  the  Most  valuable  Feeding  Methods  and  Formula*  Known.) 

There  are  two  systems  in  common  use  for  the  feeding  of  fowls.  One  is 
known  as  the  dry-feed  system ;  the  other  the  "mash"  system.  In  the  former 
all  feed  is  given  dry  either  whole  or  crushed  while  in  the  latter,  one  or  more 
of  the  daily  feeds  consists  of  a  moistened  mash;  i.  e.,  the  feed  is  ground. 
Poultrymen  disagree  as  to  the  better  of  these  two  systems  and  as  to  the  time 
at  which  grain  and  mash  should  be  fed.  Fowls  in  confinement  should  be  fed 
three  times  a  day  and  those  having  free  range  twice  a  day.  There  are  advan- 
tages to  be  gained  in  the  dry  system  in  that  it  saves  time  and  labor,  and  lessens 
the  danger  of  bowel  trouble  resulting  from  feeding  soured  or  sloppy  mashes. 

Dry  Feeding. 

In  the  dry-feeding  system,  a  mixture  of  whole  grains  is  thrown  in  the 
litter  early  in  the  morning  and  again  about  11:30  or  about  an  hour  before 
they  go  to  roost  at  night.  A  dry  mash  mixture  is  opened  to  them  about  10 :00 
or  12  :30  and  they  have  access  to  it  the  remainder  of  the  day.  If  one  cannot 
feed  early  in  the  morning,  it  is  advisable  to  scatter  the  grain  plentifully  in  the 
litter  after  the  birds  have  gone  to  roost.  This  grain  will  furnish  feed  for  early 
morning.  Fowls  should  have  empty  crops  in  the  morning  but  the  crops  should 
never  be  quite  full  the  rest  of  the  day  until  roosting  time.  Keep  the  birds 
slightly  hungry  during  the  day  and  do  not  give  them  all  they  will  eat  until 
just  before  roosting  time.  The  birds  should  be  handled  once  in  a  while  when 
they  are  on  the  perch  and  if  they  are  either  too  fleshy  or  too  poor,  their  rations 
should  be  changed  accordingly. 

Several  feeds  for  dry  feeding  are  given  below.  The  feed  given  early  in 
the  morning  and  at  11 :30  we  call  the  "grain  mixture"  and  that  given  at  12:30 
the  "dry-mash." 

Valuable  Feeding  Formulas  for  Dry  Feeding. 
Grain  Mixture.  Dry  Mash. 

(Amount  for  100  hens).  Wheat  bran,  2  parts  by  weight. 

Middlings,  1  part  by  weight. 
Cornmeal,!  part  by  weight. 
Linseed  meal,  1  part  by  weight. 
Gluten,  1  part  by  weight. 
Beef  scrap,  1  part  by  weight. 

Dry  Mash. 

Grain  Mixture.  2  parts  meat  scrap. 

3  parts  by  weight  of  corn.  2  parts  ground  corn. 

1  part  by  weight  of  wheat.  1  part  bran  feed. 


310 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Grain  Mixture. 

(Winter  Ration.) 
Wheat,  3  parts  by  weight. 
Corn,  2  parts  by  weight. 
Oats,  1  part  by  weight. 


Whole  Grain  Mixture. 

By  weight.    By  measure. 

Corn 60  pounds         36  quarts 

Wheat    60  pounds         32  quarts 

Oats 30  pounds         30  quarts 

Buckwheat   .30  pounds         20  quarts 

Whole  Grain  Mixture. 
(For  Summer.) 

By  weight.  By  measure. 

Corn 60  pounds  36  quarts 

Wheat 60  pounds  32  quarts 

Oats 30  pounds  30  quarts 


Dry  Mash. 

(Winter  Ration.) 
60  pounds  of  cornmeal. 
60  pounds  wheat  middlings  or  shorts. 
50  pounds  meat  scraps. 
30  pounds  wheat  bran. 
10  pounds  linseed  oil  meal. 

10  pounds  milled  alfalfa. 

11  pounds  salt. 

Mash  Mixture. 
(For  Winter  and  Summer.) 

By  By 

Weight.  Measure. 

Wrheat   middlings.  .  .60  Ibs.       71  qts. 
Cornmeal  ..........  60  Ibs. 

Wheat  bran  .........  30  Ibs. 

Oil  meal  ...........  10  Ibs. 

Alfala  meal  ........  10  Ibs. 

Beef  scrap  ..........  50  Ibs. 

Salt  ...............   1  Ib. 


57  qts. 
57  qts. 
8  qts. 
20  qts, 
43  qts. 
Y*  qt. 


This  mash  mixture  is  fed  in  dry  hoppers  kept  open  only  in  the  afternoon. 
The  whole  grain  feed  should  be  restricted  so  that  they  will  eat  at  least  one- 
third  ground  feed. 


Dry  Mash. 

Bran   5      pounds 

Shorts 5      pounds 

Meat  Scraps 3*4  pounds 


Grain  Mixture. 

Corn   10  pounds 

Wheat 10  pounds 

Oats   5  pounds 

25  pounds 

In  order  to  keep  the  above  feed  properly  balanced  the  13^  pounds  of 
mash  should  be  consumed  in  the  same  time  as  the  25  pounds  of  whole  grain. 
Hens  are  inclined  to  eat  too  much  of  the  whole  grain  and  slight  the  mashes. 
This  must  be  prevented.  The  above  mixtures  are  figured  out  for  confined 
hens  and  should  be  varied  to  meet  other  conditions. 


Grain  Mixture. 
Wheat,  10  parts  by  weight. 
Corn  (cracked  preferred),  10  parts  by 

weight. 
Oats,  5  parts  by  weight. 


Dry  Mash. 

Corn  meal,  6  parts  by  weight. 
Middlings,  6  parts  by  weight. 
Bran,  3  parts  by  weight. 
Beef  scrap,  5  parts  by  weight. 
Oilmeal,  1  part  by  weight. 
Alfalfa  meal,  1  part  by  weight. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  :ill 

Grain  Mixture.  Dry  Mash. 

360  pounds  cracked  corn.  32  parts  corn  meal. 

200  pounds  wheat.  30  parts  ground  alfalfa. 

130  pounds  oats.  30  parts  animal  (meat)  meal. 

2  parts  oyster  shell. 

1  part  grit. 

1  part  charcoal. 

Mash  Feeding. 

Where  dry  feeding  and  mash  feeding  have  been  compared  it  has  been 
found  that  chickens  are  very  fond  of  broken  grain  and  whole  grain  moistened 
and  that  they  will  eat  such  material  better  than  a  dry  mixture  of  finely  ground 
feed.  The  mash  is  moistened  with  water  or  milk.  It  should  be  a  com- 
paratively dry,  crumbly  mash,  and  not  a  thin  slop.  For  the  morning  feed, 
grain  scattered  in  the  litter  is  preferred  as  this  exercises  the  birds.  It  should 
be  given  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  leave  the  roost.  The  moistened  mash 
should  be  given  at  noon — all  that  the  chickens  will  eat  in  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes — and  at  night  just  before  roosting  time  a  liberal  supply  of  grain 
should  be  scattered  in  the  litter.  (Many  poultrymen  feed  the  mash  in  the 
morning  and  a  few  feed  the  mash  at  night.  It  is  probably  more  important 
that  a  part  of  the  grain  is  ground  than  that  it  is  fed  at  a  particular  time  of 
day.)  The  following  sample  mashes  are  given : 

Valuable  Formulas  for  Mash  Feeding. 

150  pounds  ground  oats  100  pounds  wheat  bran 

150  pounds  wheat  bran  100  pounds  ground  corn 

100  pounds  corn  meal  100  pounds  ground  barley 

30  pounds  linseed  meal  100  pounds  ground  oats 

30  pounds  beef  scraps. 

100  pounds  corn  meal 

100  pounds  corn  meal  100  pounds  wheat  bran 
100  pounds  wheat  bran  75  pounds  cut  clover  or  alfalfa 

100  pounds  ground  oats  75  pounds  wheat  middlings 

Miscellaneous  Feeds. 

Mustard.— Keeps  the  chickens  healthy.  Makes  the  hens  lay  more  eggs. 
The  feeding  of  mustard  is  a  revelation  to  poultry  keepers.  When  fed  to 
breeding  stock  their  vigor  and  stamina  are  increased,  the  eggs  are  highly 
fertile  and  they  hatch  strong  chicks.  When  fed  to  the  other  fowls  it  increases 
their  health  and  vigor.  Mustard  is  not  found  to  be  a  stimulant  but  a  mild 
tonic. 

Can  be  had  by  Farmer.— Mustard  greens  can  be  easily  raised  in  any 
climate  and  fed  to  the  chickens  with  excellent  results.  Ground  mustard  is 
another  form  in  which  mustard  is  fed.  In  feeding  this  use  about  one  teaspoon- 
ful  for  six  hens. 


312  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Mustard  Bran. — This  is  a  by-product  of  the  spice  mills  and  if  it  can  be 
obtained  is  cheaper  than  ground  mustard.  There  are  two  kinds  of  the  bran — 
brown  and  yellow.  The  yellow  is  considered  the  best.  Mustard  bran  is  fed 
in  the  mash,  wet  or  dry.  When  dry  it  has  no  odor.  Feed  just  enough  bran  to 
flavor  the  mash,  except  in  case  of  hens  just  over  the  molt  that  refuse  to  lay. 

Pullets  should  be  given  small  doses  of  mustard  about  a  month  before  it 
is  time  for  them  to  lay  and  the  quantity  increased  as  they  approach  laying 
age.  At  this  time  begin  feeding  it  to  all  stock  and  it  will  solve  the  fall  and 
winter  egg  problems. 

Animal  and  Green  Feeds. — Chickens  are  able  to  pick  up  a  large  amount 
of  insects,  worms,  and  other  low  forms  of  animal  life  during  the  summer,  but 
in  the  winter  months  a  substitute  must  be  given  them.  For  this  purpose  meat 
scraps,  such  as  offals  from  butchering,  green  cut  bone,  animal  meal  and  beef 
scraps  are  excellent.  The  same  is  true  of  green  feeds.  Chickens  must  have 
the  animal  and  green  feeds  in  addition  to  the  dry  grain  feeds  to  keep  them 
healthy. 

Silage. — The  secretary  of  the  Wisconsin  Poultry  Association  advises  that 
silage  made  from  corn  is  being  fed  to  poultry  in  that  state  with  splendid 
results.  It  is  fine  to  make  hens  lay.  The  average  run  of  silage  is  the  best. 
If  there  is  too  much  grain  in  it,  the  hens  become  too  fat  to  lay.  There  is  no 
question  but  silage  is  going  to  be  used  more  largely  in  feeding  poultry. 

Hay. — Clover  hay  makes  a  fine  feed  for  chickens.  Prepare  it  as  follows : 
Cut  it  as  short  lengths  as  possible  (y^  to  }/2  inch)  and  place  in  a  bucket.  Pour 
boiling  water  over  it  and  allow  it  to  stand  two  or  three  hours  or  over  night. 
When  ready  to  feed,  drain  off  the  water  and  mix  the  hay  with  the  mash.  The 
hay  may  make  about  one-half  the  bulk  of  the  feed.  The  exact  proportion  is 
immaterial.  Any  kind  of  hay  is  valuable  but  clover  hay  is  best.  Do  not  give 
too  much  bulky  feed. 

Table  Scraps. — In  feeding  table  scraps,  salt  and  acids  of  one  kind  or 
another  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The  feeding  of  large  quan- 
tities of  scraps  is  not  very  satisfactory,  inasmuch  as  it  has  to  be  fed  in  a  trough, 
and  when  given  to  the  birds  they  generally  pick  out  the  pieces  and  scatter 
them  all  about  the  house  in  the  litter,  and  it  makes  a  more  or  less  bad  method 
of  feeding.  They  should  be  fed  fairly  dry ;  that  is,  they  should  always  be  well 
drained,  so  there  will  be  no  liquid  matter  in  with  the  scraps. 

Birds  cannot  be  kept  on  table  scraps  alone.  This  form  of  feed  is  a  rough- 
age and  should  be  considered  as  nothing  more  than  a  variety  or  stimulating 
feed  given  along  with  the  regular  rations  of  grain  and  mash.  It  acts  as  an 
appetizer  and  is  a  valuable  feed  when  given  fresh.  Moldy  and  sour  feeds 
should  be  guarded  against. 

Corn  Gluten. — Corn  gluten  feed  makes  an  excellent  addition  to  the  ration 
and  may  be  procured  through  almost  any  feed  store.  It  is  highly  palatable  and 
may  be  fed  to  advantage  in  the  dry  mash  with  other  feed,  such  as  follows :  One 
hundred  pounds  of  cornmeal,  one  hundred  pounds  of  bran,  one  hundred  pounds 
of  white  middlings,  one  hundred  pounds  of  corn  gluten  feed,  one  hundred  pounds 
of  meat  scrap,  six  pounds  of  charcoal,  six  pounds  of  salt. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  313 

Grit.— Grit  is  essential  to  economy  in  feeding  and  to  the  health  of  the 
fowls.  It  aids  the  digestion  as  it  takes  the  place  of  teeth  and  is  required  for 
the  proper  preparation  of  feed  in  the  gizzard.  If  the  feed  is  not  properly  taken 
care  of  by  this  organ,  an  undue  strain  is  thrown  on  the  fowl's  whole  system. 
This  often  causes  disease  and  allows  a  great  deal  of  nutriment  to  pass  through 
the  bird's  body  without  being  absorbed.  A  box  of  grit  should  be  kept  in  every 
pen  and  yard.  It  gives  the  fowls  strong  bones,  bright  plumage  and  aids  in  the 
assimilation  of  the  food. 

Charcoal.— Charcoal  is  fine  for  chickens  when  their  stomach  is  sour  and 
their  digestion  has  been  impaired.  It  acts  as  a  corrective  because  it  has  a  great 
absorptive  power  for  gases,  impurities,  and  acids.  It  is  often  well  to  give  char- 
coal to  the  birds  in  case  they  are  dumpy  before  the  feed  is  changed  or  before 
medicine  is  given.  Charcoal  of  excellent  quality  can  be  made  by  burning  a  pile 
of  corncobs  until  it  is  a  glowing  mass  and  then  dousing  it  with  water. 

Varied  Ration  Important. — In  feeding  grain  one  must  give  a  variety.  No 
one  kind  of  grain  is  best.  Variety  should  be  secured  by  feeding  different  kinds 
of  grain  on  different  days  or  by  mixing  the  grain.  If  grain  is  made  the  sole 
feed,  fat  instead  of  eggs  is  the  result. 

Feeds  Interchangeable. — The  following  grains  may  be  substituted  for 
each  other  in  the  manner  indicated  below.  That  is  not  saying  that  any  one  is 
exactly  equal  in  food  value  to  the  one  opposite  but  they  do  not  vary  far  enough 
to  make  a  material  difference.  If  one  grain  is  high  in  price  in  your  locality  it 
will  be  a  saving  of  money  for  you  to  use  another  and  sacrifice  the  difference 
in  food  value  in  that  direction. 

Grain.  Substitutes. 

Wheat  *  Corn,  barley,  oats,  kafir-corn. 

Corn  Buckwheat  (too  fattening  fed  alone),  wheat. 

Oats  Wheat,  barley,  kafir-corn. 

Barley  Wheat,  oats. 

Quick  Fattening. 

To  fatten  readily,  the  poultry  must  be  put  in  a  small  place  where  they  will 
have  very  little  space  to  run  about  and  a  place  that  can  be  darkened,  just  enough 
light  being  admitted  for  them  to  see  to  walk  about  when  not  eating.  If  they 
have  little  exercise  they  will  fatten  more  readily.  The  sexes  should  be  separated. 
Make  a  small  "V"  shaped  trough,  like  a  hog  trough,  only  smaller,  in  which 
to  put  the  wet  food.  The  essentials  of  fattening  are  quiet,  darkness,  except 
at  meal  time,  and  plenty  of  soft  feed  given  at  regular  intervals,  usually  three 
times  a  day.  Give  the  birds  plenty  of  water,  grit,  and  charcoal.  Keep  all 
green  feed  from  them.  Vegetables  may  be  given  if  necessary  to  vary  the 
ration.  Fowls  should  be  marketed  at  once  when  fat  as  they  will  lose  their 
appetites  when  fed  too  long  and  begin  losing  weight.  If  a  bird  shows  signs 
of  getting  off  its  feed,  it  should  be  sent  to  market  immediately  or  put  on  the 


314  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

range  to  recuperate.  It  takes  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  to  fatten  poultry. 
Fowls  brought  up  in  confinement  are  much  better  for  the  table  than  those  off 
the  range. 

Feeds  for  Quick  Fattening. 

1.  Oats,  Wheat,  Middlings  and  Cornmeal. — Feed  a  mixture  of  ground 
oats,  cracked  wheat  and  wheat  middlings,  cornmeal,  scalded  and  made  into 
a  dough  with  hot  water.     Feed  as  often  during  the  day  as  the  chrckens  will 
eat  the  feed  clean. 

2.  Cornmeal,  Bran  and  Sour  Milk. — Equal  parts  of  cornmeal  and  bran 
mixed  to  a  thin  batter  with  buttermilk  or  sourmilk  makes  a  good  fattening 
ration.    Give  little  first  day ;  after  that  give  all  they  can  eat  in  twenty  minutes. 

3.  Buckwheat  Flour,  Cornmeal  and  Milk. — Make  a  mixture  of  buck- 
wheat flour,  cornmeal  and  milk.     Mix  these  to  a  batter  that  will  just  drop 
from  a  spoon  but  not  run.     Feed  all  they  will  eat.     Remove  troughs  after 
feeding.    Fowls  fattened  this  way  are  deliciously  palatable  and  tender. 

4.  Barley,  Oats,  Corn,  Beef  Scraps  and  Buttermilk. — Take  equal  parts 
of  finely  ground  barley,  finely  ground  oats    (with  hulls   sifted  out),  finely 
ground  corn.     To  this  mixture  add  10%  of  beef  scraps.     Use  buttermilk  if 
possible,  if  not,  skim  milk  for  moistening.     Feed  at  regular  intervals. 

5.  Corn,  Oats,  Flour  and  Tallow. — A  fine  ration  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows :  100  pounds  ground  corn,  100  pounds  ground  oats,  50  pounds  flour  and 
4  pounds  tallow. 

Cramming. 

If  some  of  the  fattening  stock  does  not  eat  all  they  should  they  can  be 
crammed  to  good  advantage  as  follows:  Make  the  feed  into  balls  about  one- 
half  inch  in  diameter  and  two  inches  long.  Have  from  fourteen  to  eighteen 
balls  for  each  bird.  Sit  down  on  a  box  or  stool,  grasp  the  bird  firmly  between 
the  knees,  elongate  the  neck,  grasping  the  head  in  the  left  hand,  and  placing 
the  first  finger  in  the  mouth  to  keep  it  open.  Then  dip  one  of  the  balls  in 
skim  milk  or  water  and  force  it  into  the  bird's  mouth,  pressing  it  down  the 
throat  with  the  finger.  Next  grip  the  neck  above  the  ball  with  the  thumb 
and  first  finger;  run  them  downward  along  the  neck  and  force  the  ball  into 
the  crop.  It  will  take  fourteen  to  eighteen  to  fill  the  crop  of  one  bird.  Cram- 
ming is  done  just  before  roosting  time.  One  can  soon  learn  to  cram  the  birds 
easily  and  readily. 

MARKETING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS. 

(Including  Systems  of  Marketing,  Employed  by  People  All  Over  the  Country.) 

The  average  farmer  and  poultryman  can  generally  figure  out  that  he  is 
making  a  profit  from  his  chickens,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  with  better 
methods  of  preparing  fowls  for  market  and  better  systems  of  marketing,  the 
profit  made  from  them  would  be  much  greater.  In  the  far  East  where  more 
care  is  taken  in  the  marketing  and  in  localities  farther  west  where  system  is 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  315 

used,  poultry  products  bring  prices  far  above  the  average.  Farmers  are 
realizing  more  and  more  thai  the  farm  hen  who  "just  eats  her  head  off"  can 
be  handled  so  as  to  produce  a  handsome  profit.  All  the  loss  from  poor 
handling  comes  out  of  the  farmer.  The  farmer  should  study  his  market  con- 
ditions and  learn  how  to  successfully  meet  the  requirements  of  his  particular 
market.  Where  marketing  is  done  to  the  best  advantage,  farmers  find  that 
it  is  important  to  have  their  products  put  up  in  an  attractive  style.  They 
insist  upon  selling  them  on  a  quality  basis.  Such  farmers  study  the  details 
of  killing,  dressing  and  packing  that  they  may  arrange  their  products  in  the 
best  manner  possible. 

Killing  and  Dressing  Chickens. 

Killing. — The  birds  should  not  be  allowed  a  bit  of  food  for  eighteen  to 
thirty-six  hours  before  killing  if  they  are  to  be  sent  off  the  farm  undrawn. 
If  they  are  to  be  drawn  (i.  e.,  inwards  removed),  feed  should  be  kept  from 
them  at  least  ten  hours  before  killing.  In  either  case  keep  all  drinking  water 
from  them  for  at  least  eight  hours  before  killing.  If  food  is  left  in  the  crops 
it  quickly  ferments  and  produces  an  uncanny  appearance  in  the  fowls.  When 
ready  to  kill,  suspend  the  fowls  by  the  legs  and  lock  the  wings  together  to 
prevent  flapping.  You  can  take  all  sense  of  feeling  from  the  birds  by  piercing 
the  brain  with  a  knife  run  through  the  roof  of  the  mouth  or  by  hitting  the 
bird  a  blow  on  the  head.  After  this  is  done,  the  blood  vessels  in  the  neck 
should  be  cut.  To  do  this,  grasp  the  fowl  by  the  comb  or  feathers  on  the 
back  of  the  head  with  the  left  hand ;  with  the  right  hand  insert  the  blade  of  a 
sharp  knife  in  the  neck  back  of  the  ear  lobe  and  run  the  blade  through  the 
neck.  Give  the  blade  a  twist  in  withdrawing  it.  This  will  sever  the  artery 
and  cause  the  blood  to  flow  freely.  Another  way  to  cut  the  artery  is  by 
running  the  knife  through  the  mouth  into  the  back  part  of  the  throat.  The 
blood  should  be  saved  as  it  makes  a  fine  food  for  laying  hens  and  young 
fowls. 

Dry  Picking. — Most  markets  prefer  dry-picked  birds.  Dry-picking  should 
be  begun  immediately  after  killing,  before  the  bird  stops  bleeding  and  the 
flesh  has  a  chance  to  become  cold.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  tear  the  skin. 
Pick  up  the  breast  and  up  the  side  to  tail,  unlock  the  wings  and  pick  them 
also ;  remove  the  feathers  from  the  back,  and  finish  the  job  by  plucking..  If 
no  time  is  lost,  the  feathers  will  come  out  easily.  A  slightly  higher  price  is 
usually  received  on  the  market  for  dry-picked  fowls  than  for  those  which  are 
scalded  before  picking.  The  work  of  dry  picking  is,  of  course,  a  little  more 
tedious  than  after  scalding,  however,  the  dry-picked  fowl  is  in  better  shape 
for  the  market. 

Scalding. — To  scald  a  bird,  it  should  be  immersed  in  hot  water  a  little 
below  the  boiling  point  as  soon  as  it  is  through  bleeding.  The  bird  should  be 
immersed  three  or  four  times.  Holding  it  by  the  neck  and  legs,  dip  the  breast 
and  then  the  back  into  the  water.  It  is  now  ready  for  plucking.  Be  careful 
not  to  over  scald,  as  this  will  cause  the  outer  surface  of  the  skin  to  rub  off. 


316  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Drawing. — If  the  market  demands  a  drawn  fowl,  cut  a  slit  about  an  inch 
long  from  near  the  end  of  the  keel  bone,  back  of  the  vent  and  parallel  with 
it,  large  enough  to  insert  the  fingers.  Insert  the  index  finger  and  remove  the 
intestines.  To  remove  the  egg  sac  and  lower  end  of  the  intestines,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  enlarge  the  slit  to  a  half  circle  so  that  it  joins  the  end  of  the  vent. 
Cut  off  the  head,  then  draw  the  skin  back  about  half  an  inch  and  cut  off  that 
much  of  the  neck  bone.  Next  pull  the  skin  forward  and  tie. 

Shrinkage. — If  the  intestines  are  not  removed,  fowls  lose  from  eight  to 
eleven  percent.  If  the  intestines  are  removed  they  lose  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  percent.  The  shrinkage  will  not  exceed  the  smaller  figures  given  if 
they  have  been  well  fattened  and  have  been  deprived  of  food  at  least  twelve 
hours  before  killing. 

Plumping. — To  plump  a  fowl,  dip  it  for  about  eight  or  ten  seconds  into 
nearly  boiling  water,  then  immerse  it  in  cold  water  and  let  it  remain  for 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  If  the  fowls  are  to  be  shipped  allow  them  to  become 
thoroughly  dry. 

Packing. — Birds  should  be  thoroughly  cooled  before  packing.  Pack  them 
neatly  and  cleanly  and  in  packages  that  can  be  easily  handled.  Any  farmer 
delivering  dressed  poultry  in  town  can  greatly  improve  the  looks  of  his 
product  by  packing  each  bird  in  a  small  pasteboard  box,  back  downward. 
Proper  packing  will  make  a  more  salable  product  and  should  bring  a  higher 
price. 

Points  on  the  Care  of  Eggs. 

1.  Gather  Eggs  Daily. — Eggs  should  be  gathered  every  day.    They  spoil 
easily. 

2.  Keep  Eggs  in  Cool  Place. — Keep  them  in  a  cool,  well-ventilated  place. 
An  egg  is  over  seventy  percent  water  and  the  water  evaporates  through  the 
shell. 

3.  Producing  Infertile  Eggs. — Keep  only  two  or  three  roosters  for  the 
breeding  season  and  kill  the  rest.    Hens  lay  better  without  them.    You  will 
not  be  troubled  with  rotten  eggs  if  you  have  no  roosters  in  your  flocks  when 
not  needed. 

4.  Nests. — Have  a  nest  for  every  four  or  five  hens.    Keep  the  neste  clean 
and  free  from  vermin.     One  of  the  greatest  causes  of  poor  eggs  is  poor 
nests.    Clean  nests  mean  clean  eggs. 

5.  Clean  Dirty  Eggs. — Clean  the  eggs  before  sending  into  market  by 
rubbing  them  lightly  with  a  damp  cloth  in  case  dirt  gets  on  them. 

6.  Sell  Eggs  Every  Week. — Sell  your  eggs  every  week.     Do  not  give 
time  for  the  water  in  them  to  evaporate.     A  stale  egg  is  always  shrunken. 
In  time  it  becomes  light  enough  to  float. 

7.  Test  Eggs. — Test  the  eggs  before  sending  them  to  market.    Be  sure 
they  are  all  good.    The  loss  from  bad  eggs  comes  out  of  the  farmer's  profit 
in  the  end. 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  317 

8.  Sort  Eggs.— Sort  the  eggs  before  sending  them  to  market.  Have 
those  of  like  color  together.  Use  the  small  or  dirty  eggs  at  home.  Insist 
upon  selling  them  on  a  quality  basis. 

Grading  Eggs. 

Proper  grading  and  marketing  of  eggs  is  an  important  subject  and  one 
which  does  not  receive  the  attention  it  deserves.  It  is  neglected  mostly  by 
the  smaller  egg  producer  who  is  not  properly  posted  along  this  line.  He  is 
not  informed  on  market  conditions  and  does  not  realize  the  losses  which 
result  from  the  lack  of  attention  to  grading. 

Grades  of  Eggs. 

• 

Fresh  Eggs. — An  egg  to  be  accepted  as  a  first  class,  or  fresh  egg,  must 
be  newly  laid,  clean,  of  normal  size,  showing  a  very  small  air  cell,  and  must 
have  a  strong,  smooth  shell,  of  even  color  and  free  from  cracks.  With  the 
exception  of  the  air  cell,  which  is  only  visible  through  the  aid  of  the  candle, 
these  are  the  points  by  which  eggs  are  graded  in  the  early  spring,  at  which 
time  they  are  quite  uniform  in  quality,  thereby  making  candling  unnecessary. 

Checks. — This  term  applies  to  eggs  which  are  cracked  but  not  leaking. 

Leakers. — As  indicated  by  the  name,  this  term  applies  to  eggs  which 
have  lost  a  pait  of  their  contents. 

Seconds. — The  term  "seconds"  applies  to  eggs  which  have  deteriorated  to 
a  sufficient  extent  as  to  be  rejected  as  firsts.  1'hey  are,  however,  of  a  high 
enough  quality  to  be  used  for  human  consumption.  The  several  classes  of 
eggs  which  go  to  make  this  grade  may  be  defined  as  follows : 

(a)  Heated  egg:  One  in  which  the  embryo  has  proceeded  to  a  point  cor- 
responding to  about  18  to  24  hours'  normal  incubation.     In  the  infertile  egg 
this  condition  can  be  recognized  by  the  increased  color  of  the  yolk;  when 
held  before  the  candle  it  will  appear  heavy  and  slightly  darker  than  the  fertile 
egg. 

(b)  Shrunken  egg:  This  class  of  seconds  can  be  easily  distinguished  by 
the  size  of  the  air  cell.    It  may  occupy  from  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  the  space 
inside  the  shell.     The  holding  of  the  eggs  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to 
allow  a  portion  of  the  contents  to  evaporate,  is  the  main  cause  of  this  con- 
dition. 

(c)  Small  egg:  Any  egg  that  will  detract  from  the  appearance  of  normal 
eggs  on  account  of  its  small  size,  will  come  under  this  class  although  it  may 
be  a  new  laid  egg. 

(d)  Dirty  egg :  Fresh  eggs  which  have  been  soiled  with  earth,  droppings, 
or  egg  contents,  or  badly  stained  by  coming  in  contact  with  wet  straw,  hay, 
etc.,  are  classed  as  seconds. 

(e)  Watery  egg:  Those  in  which  the  inner  membrane  of  the  air  cell  is 
ruptured,  allowing  the  air  to  escape  into  the  contents  of  the  egg  and  thereby 
giving  a  watery  or  frothy  appearance. 


318  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

(f)  Presence  of  foreign  matter  in  eggs :  Small  blood  streaks  or  clots.   This 
condition  is  found  in  many  fresh  laid  eggs.     Often  eggs  are  laid  which  show 
small  clots  the  size  of  a  pea.    These  are  sometimes  termed  "liver"  or  "meat" 
spots. 

(g)  Badly  misshapen  eggs :  Eggs  which  are  extremely  long  or  very  flat, 
or  in  which  part  of  the  shell's  surface  is  raised  in  the  form  of  a  ring;  in  other 
instances  a  number  of  hard,  wartlike  growths  appear  on  the  outside  of  the 
shell. 

Spots. — Eggs  in  which  bacteria  or  mold  growth  has  developed  locally  and 
caused  the  formation  of  a  lumpy  adhesion  on  the  inside  of  the  shell.  There 
are  three  well  recognized  classes  of  mold  spots — namely:  White,  brown  and 
black.  In  cases  where  an  infertile  egg  has  been  subjected  to  natural  heat  for 
a  sufficient  period  of  time,  the  yolk  will  often  settle  and  become  fixed  to  the 
membrane.  This  condition  might  be  termed  a  "plainspot." 

Blood  Rings. — Eggs  in  which  the  embryo  has  developed  to  a  sufficient 
extent  so  that  it  is  quickly  recognized  when  held  before  the  candle.  It  has 
been  found  that  it  requires  between  twenty-four  and  thirty-six  hours  of  incu- 
bation under  a  setting  hen  to  produce  this  condition. 

Rots. — Eggs  which  are  absolutely  unfit  for  food.  The  different  classes 
of  rots  may  be  defined  as  follows : 

(a)  Black  rot:  This  is  the  easiest  class  of  rots  to  recognize  and,  conse- 
quently, the  best  known.    When  the  egg  is  held  before  the  candle  the  contents 
have  a  blackish  appearance,  and  in  most  cases  the  air  cell  is  very  prominent. 
The  formation  of  hydrogen-sulphide  gas  in  the  egg  causes  the  contents  to 
blacken  and  gives  rise  to  the  characteristic  rotten  egg  smell  and  sometimes 
causes  the  egg  to  explode. 

(b)  White  rot :  These  eggs  have  a  characteristic  sour  smell.     The  con- 
tents become  watery,  the  yolk  and  white  mixed,  and  the  whole  egg  offensive 
to  both  the  sight  and  the  smell.    It  is  also  known  as  the  "mixed  rot." 

(c)  Spot  rot :  In  this  the  foreign  growth  has  not  contaminated  the  entire 
egg,  but  has  remained  near  the  point  of  entrance.    Such  eggs  are  readily  picked 
out  with  the  candle  and  when  broken  show  lumpy  particles  adhering  to  the 
inside  of  the  shell.    These  lumps  are  of  various  colors  and  appearances.     It 
is  probable  that  spot  rots  are  caused  as  much  by  mold  as  bacteria,  but  for 
practical  purposes  the  distinction  is  unnecessary. 

To  all  intents  and  purposes  the  spot  rot,  as  explained  above,  is  practically 
the  same  as  the  brown  and  black  spots  described  under  the  general  head  of 
"spots."  The  spot  rot  is  also  placed  under  the  general  head  of  rots,  simply 
because  some  candlers  will  call  it  a  spot  while  others  designate  it  as  a  spot 
rot.  Pink  and  blood  rots  are  names  which  are  also  applied  to  certain  classes 
of  rotten  eggs,  the  pink  rot  deriving  its  name  from  the  peculiar  pinkish  color 
of  the  contents  when  held  before  the  candle.  The  same  is  true  of  the  blood 
rot,  which  is  bloody  or  red  in  appearance. 

If  the  farmer  will  study  the  foregoing  and  then  grade  his  eggs  accord- 
ingly, he  will  s.oon  obtain  better  prices  and  will  build  a  reputation  for  quality 
which  will  soon  result  in  a  gain  for  him  financially. 


POULTRY  RAISING-CHICKENS  319 

Home  Preservation  of  Eggs. 

Preserved  vs.  Fresh  Eggs.— Many  people  desire  to  preserve  eggs  for 
home  use  when  they  are  getting  a  great  number  of  them.  Preserved  eggs 
are  as  good  for  nearly  all  purposes  as  fresh  eggs  if  the  preservatives  are 
properly  made  and  the  eggs  are  strictly  fresh  when  put  into  them. 

Eggs  Should  be  in  Good  Condition.— Eggs  from  hens  that  have  no  males 
running  with  them  will  keep  longer  than  eggs  that  are  fertile.  It  is  best 
to  put  the  eggs  into  the  preservative  the  day  they  are  gathered,  being  very 
careful  not  to  use  any  with  cracked  or  dirty  shells. 

Putting  Eggs  in  Preservative.— Care  should  be  taken  not  to  crack  the 
shells  when  placing  them  in.  They  may  rest  in  any  position.  Eggs  that  do 
not  remain  beneath  the  surface  of  the  solution  should  be  weighed  down.  Be 
sure  to  have  at  least  two  inches  of  the  solution  above  the  eggs.  When  the 
eggs  are  removed  for  use  they  should  be  wiped.  Before  boiling  eggs  that 
have  been  preserved  in  a  liquid,  puncture  the  shell  with  a  needle  to  keep  them 
from  cracking. 

Containers. — Barrels,  earthenware  vessels,  cement  tanks  and  galvanized 
tin  buckets  are  all  suitable  for  storing  eggs.  The  container  should  be  clean 
and  scalded  to  make  it  free  from  all  germs.  Keep  the  vessel  containing  the 
eggs  in  a  dark,  cool  place  and  do  not  disturb  it  any  more  than  necessary. 

Methods  of  Preserving  Eggs. 

Water-Glass. — This  is  one  of  the  best  methods  for  home  use.  To  pre- 
serve eggs  by  this  method  use  one  gallon  of  water-glass  (sodium  silicate)  to 
nine  or  ten  gallons  of  water.  Boil  the  water,  add  the  water-glass,  and  mix 
the  solution  thoroughly.  Put  it  in  a  clean  container  where  the  eggs  are  to 
be  stored  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  vessel  need  only  be  half  filled  as  the 
eggs  will  make  it  rise.  Before  using  the  eggs  stored  in  water-glass,  rinse  in 
warm  water  and  wipe  them  dry.  Water-glass  is  nonpoisonous  and  is  harmless 
to  both  hands  and  clothes.  It  acts  only  on  the  shell  of  the  egg,  making  it 
water  and  air  tight  and  costs  from  60  to  75  cents  per  gallon.  One  gallon 
of  water-glass  makes  enough  liquid  to  preserve  from  75  to  100  dozen  eggs. 
The  solution  should  not  be  used  a  second  time. 

Will  Keep  a  Year. — Eggs  preserved  by  this  method  will  keep  at  least  a 
year  in  good  condition.  April,  May  and  June  are  the  best  months  in  which 
to  preserve  eggs.  Those  put  down  in  too  hot  weather  will  not  come  out  quite 
so  well  as  those  put  down  earlier.  If  eggs  are  put  down  in  the  months  named, 
use  those  put  down  in  June  first,  then  those  in  May,  and  those  in  April  last. 

Limewater. — A  good  limewater  preservative  can  also  be  made  as  follows: 
6  gallons  of  water,  one  quart  of  salt  and  3  quarts  of  finely  slaked  lime.  After 
stirring  thoroughly  allow  the  solution  to  stand  about  three  days  and  pour 
off  the  liquid  for  the  preservative.  The  eggs  can  be  put  in  the  container  after 
the  limewater  or  they  may  be  put  in  first  and  the  limewater  poured  over  them. 
Have  at  least  two  inches  of  liquid  above  the  top  layer  of  eggs.  Lime  preserved 
eggs  can  be  distinguished  by  the  roughness  of  the  shell. 


320  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Bran  and  Salt. — Packing  in  bran  has  been  found  to  be  a  satisfactory 
method  of  preserving  eggs  in  many  cases.  They  may  also  be  preserved  for 
several  months  by  packing  them  in  dry  salt.  Have  at  least  two  inches  above 
the  upper  layer  of  eggs  in  either  case. 

Grease  and  Paper. — Eggs  may  be  kept  for  some  time  by  greasing  them 
and  wrapping  each  one  in  paper. 

•    Rolled  Oats. — In  cold  countries  like  Alaska  they  preserve  eggs  by  simply 
packing  them  in  rolled  oats. 

Marketing. 

Selling  Direct  to  the  Consumer. — If  the  farmer  produces  a  high  quality 
of  goods,  puts  them  up  in  attractive  style,  and  carefully  works  up  a  large 
retail  trade  in  a  nearby  town,  he  will  find  this  method  of  disposing  of  his 
goods  the  most  profitable  because  he  eliminates  the  charges  of  the  middlemen. 
To  do  this  successfully,  however,  he  must  study  his  customers  and  learn  their 
tastes.  In  fact,  he  must  be  a  salesman.  The  eggs  should  be  carefully  graded. 
Many  farmers  who  have  worked  up  a  good  retail  trade  have  found  it  advisable 
to  pack  the  eggs  in  paste-board  egg  boxes,  holding  one  or  two  dozen  as  the 
trade  demands.  This  enables  one  to  easily  grade  the  eggs  since  he  can  quickly 
pick  out  a  dozen  alike.  This  way  a  customer  desiring  eggs  of  a  certain  color 
can  be  supplied.  Keep  them  covered.  It  is  also  possible  to  secure  customers 
in  a  city  within  reasonable  shipping  distance,  expressing  them  a  certain 
amount  of  eggs  at  regular  intervals  (once  or  twice  a  week).  By  furnishing 
eggs  of  a  superior  quality  and  having  them  strictly  fresh,  the  farmer  can  soon 
secure  a  substantial  increase  over  prices  paid  in  the  open  market.  Hotels, 
clubs  and  restaurants  are  also  good  customers  to  supply. 

Selling  Direct  to  Retailer. — In  selling  direct  to  the  grocery  or  provision 
dealer,  seek  out  the  one  who  caters  to  a  select  trade.  Sell  your  goods  on  a 
quality  basis  and  secure  the  top  price. 

Selling  to  Commission  Merchants. — The  returns  by  following  this  method 
are  usually  not  as  great  as  the  others  but  it  is  the  simplest  and  does  away 
with  the  trouble1  of  handling  the  private  trade.  In  selling  to  commission  mer- 
chants, try  to  deal  with  those  who  have  developed  a  trade  along  a  certain  line 
as  they  can  pay  the  highest  prices. 

Shipping  by  Parcel  Post. — The  parcel  post  offers  a  means  by  which  eggs 
can  be  snipped  direct  from  the  farm  to  the  consumer.  It  is  rather  new,  but 
is  fast  becoming  popular.  Eggs  to  be  shipped  by  this  method  must  be  of  a 
first  class  quality  and  have  the  best  of  care.  The  postal  requirements  are 
as  follows:  Eggs  shall  be  accepted  for  local  delivery  when  so  packed  in  a 
basket  or  other  container  as  to  prevent  damage  to  other  mail  matter.  This 
embraces  all  collection  and  delivery  service  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local 
office.  Eggs  shall  be  accepted  for  mailing  regardless  of  distance  when  each 
egg  is  wrapped  separately  and  surrounded  with  excelsior,  cotton,  or  other 
suitable  materials  and  packed  in  a  strong  container  made  of  double-faced 
corrugated  pasteboard,  metal,  wood  or  other  suitable  material  and  wrapped 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS  321 

• 

so  that  nothing  can  escape  from  the  package.  All  such  parcels  shall  be 
labeled  "Eggs."  Eggs  in  parcels  weighing  more  than  20  pounds,  shall  be 
accepted  for  mailing  to  offices  in  the  first  and  second  zones  when  packed  in 
crates,  boxes,  buckets,  or  other  containers  having  tight  bottoms  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  anything  from  the  package  and  so  constructed  as  properly  to 
protect  the  contents.  Such  packages  to  be  marked,  "Eggs — This  side  up," 
and  to  be  transported  outside  of  mail  bags.  The  weight  of  a  single  dozen 
of  eggs  in  a  carton  properly  packed  and  wrapped  for  mailing  will  weigh  from 
2  to  3  pounds  If  the  eggs  are  small,  the  container  light,  and  the  package  does 
not  weigh  over  2  pounds,  the  postage  within  the  150  mile  limit,  or  first  and 
second  zones,  would  be  6c;  if  the  package  weighed  between  2  and  3  pounds 
it  will  cost  7c  within  the  first  and  second  zones  under  normal  conditions. 
Remember  that  the  sender's  name  and  address  preceded  by  the  word  "From" 
must  be  on  every  package.  It  is  well  to  know  that  the  larger  the  package 
(within  the  size  and  weight  limits)  the  cheaper  is  the  postage  as  the  first 
pound  costs  5c  within  the  first  and  second  zones,  while  each  additional  pound, 
up  to  50,  only  costs  Ic. 

Marketing  Through  a  Creamery. — In  some  localities  marketing  through 
a  creamery  has  been  found  very  profitable.  To  make  the  most  of  this  method 
a  high  quality  of  product  should  be  maintained  and  the  eggs  stamped  so  that 
the  consumers,  recognizing  the  merit  of  the  goods,  will  call  for  them.  A  mar- 
ket is  sought  in  a  city.  Some  large  grocery  store  is  good.  It  does  not  take 
long  to  work  up  a  paying  business  by  following  this  plan,  as  the  quality  of 
the  goods  calls  for  high  prices. 

Co-operative  Marketing. — In  a  few  sections  of  our  country  the  organiza- 
tion of  egg  circles  for  the  co-operative  marketing  of  eggs  has  been  successfully 
tried  out.  In  European  countries  this  system  has  been  very  successful  and 
we  believe  it  deserves  more  widespread  attention  in  the  U.  S.  This  method 
is  similar  to  the  one  of  marketing  through  a  creamery.  However,  in- 
stead of  the  creamery  tending  to  the  business,  a  manager  is  hired  to  collect 
and  dispose  of  the  eggs.  The  manager  must  have  considerable  ability  since 
the  success  or  failure  of  the  undertaking  rests  largely  upon  him.  Usually 
twenty-five  or  thirty  farmers  form  one  group.  They  agree  to  furnish  fresh, 
sorted,  strictly  guaranteed  eggs.  In  this  way  they  put  out  an  article  of  high 
quality  and  soon  raise  the  standard  of  their  product.  With  a  better  article 
comes  a  higher  price. 

There  is  more  money  in  the  poultry  business  every  year  for  the  farmer 
who  markets  his  poultry  products  in  a  systematic  way.  It  will  pay  him  to  give 
more  attention  to  this  branch  of  the  business. 

SIMPLE  SYSTEM  OF  POULTRY  ACCOUNTING. 

It  shows : 

1.  The  value  of  the  houses  and  appliances. 

2.  Value  of  stock. 

3.  Amount  of  feed  bought  and  its  cost. 


322  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE—  STOCK 

•  4.  Number  of  eggs  laid  each  day  in  the  year. 

5.  Average  number  of  eggs  laid  by  each  hen. 

6.  Number  of  eggs  used  at  home. 

7.  Number  of  eggs  used  for  hatching. 

8.  Number  of  eggs  sold  and  money  they  brought. 

9.  Value  of  stock  sold. 

10.  Value  of  extra  time  used  in  care  of  poultry. 

11.  Profit  at  end  of  year. 

Keep  track  of  the  poultry.  See  if  the  chickens  are  making  money  for  you. 
Be  square  with  yourself  and  with  the  hens.  A  system  of  poultry  accounting 
is  one  of  the  greatest  needs  of  most  poultry  keepers.  A  poultry  raiser  should 
have  a  definite  record  of  receipts  and  expenditures. 

Simple  Plan.  —  We  hereby  give  you  one  of  the  simplest  forms  possible 
for  keeping  track  of  the  poultry  flock.  By  following  this  simple  plan,  the  raiser 
can  know  definitely  the  standing  of  his  chickens  at  the  end  of  each  year. 

Forms  Necessary.  —  The  only  forms  necessary  are:  Egg  record  monthly 
sheet,  yearly  summary  sheet,  balance  sheet,  and  inventory  sheet.  These  forms 
can  be  ruled  off  either  on  loose  sheets  of  paper  or  in  a  blank  tablet  or  book. 
The  latter  is  really  the  best  at  it  removes  the  danger  of  the  pages  being  scat- 
tered. When  it  is  used  the  left  hand  page  can  be  used  for  the  debits  and  the 
page  opposite  or  right  hand  page  for  the  credits. 

Debit  or  Dr.  —  On  the  debit  side  of  the  account  is  put  the  value  of  feeds 
fed  to  the  flock,  the  value  of  extra  labor  (if  just  the  extra  labor  is  put  down 
then  the  profit  at  the  end  of  the  year,  shows  the  returns  for  the  regular  time 
and  labor  spent  in  caring  for  the  flock.),  cost  of  any  appliance  on  anything  to 
be  used  for  flock,  etc. 

Credit  or  Cr.  —  On  the  credit  side  is  kept  the  returns  on  the  flock  such  as 
money  received  for  eggs,  or  fowls  sold,  and  the  value  of  things  used  at  home, 
as  birds  or  eggs  eaten.  By  noticing  the  examples  given  and  following  them, 
one  can  soon  learn  the  side  on  which  to  enter  an  account. 

Egg  Sheet.  —  This  sheet  is  to  keep  an  account  of  the  number  of  eggs 
gathered  each  day,  so  as  to  check  up  on  those  used  at  home  and  credit  the 
flock  with  them.  If  the  columns  headed  "Average  number  of  hens"  and 
"Average  egg  production"  are  used  it  will  show  if  the  hens  are  laying  satis- 
factorily. The  "average  number  of  hens"  can  be  determined  by  keeping  track 
of  the  deaths  each  month.  The  exact  number  would  be  as  follows:  Suppose 
that  in  a  31  day  month  there  were  62  hens  at  the  beginning  of  the  month,  that 
2  died  on  the  7th  and  1  on  the  20th.  For  ihe  first  7  days  there  were  62  hens, 
for  the  next  13  days  there  were  60  hens,  and  for  the  last  11  days  there  were 
59.  The  average  number  equals: 

60.1 


31 


An  approximate  "average  of  hens"  close  enough  for  practical  purposes 
may  be  obtained  by  taking  the  average  between  the  number  of  hens  at  the  be- 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS 


323 


ginning  and  the  end  of  the  month.  Suppose  there  were  40  hens  at  the  begin- 
ning and  36  at  the  end  of  the  month.  To  find  the  average  add  these  two 
numbers  together  and  divide  by  3. 

Average  Egg  Production. — After  the  "average  number  of  hens"  is  obtained 
the  "average  egg  production"  is  determined  by  dividing  the  total  number  of 
eggs  laid  by  the  "average  number  of  hens." 


YEARLY  EGG  RECORD 


Day  of  Month 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1  

2  

3   

4       

5       

' 

6       

7           

8                  

9                      

10 

11 

12 

13           

14           

15                  

16                      

17                      

18                      

19                          .    . 

20                          .    . 

21 

22 

23                       

24                       

25 

26 

27                           .    . 

28 

29 

30 

31 

fT'.J.-l 

i  otai  
Average  number  of 

hens  
Average  egg  pro- 
duction   

Monthly  Sheet. — One  monthly  sheet  is  used  for  each  month  in  a  year. 
All  chickens  and  eggs  consumed  at  home  should  be  put  on  the  credit  side  of  the 
sheet  at  their  regular  market  value.  Eggs  used  for  hatching  purposes  should 
be  put  on  both  the  debit  and  credit  sides  at  the  same  price.  If  the  demand 
for  hatching  purposes  is  great  enough  to  take  care  of  all  suitable  eggs,  the 
price  should  be  the  rate  obtained  for  hatching  eggs.  If  only  the  extra  labor  re- 


324 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


quired  now  and  then  is  debited  against  the  flock,  the  balance  at  the  end  of  the 
year  represents  the  payment  the  chickens  have  made  for  the  raiser's  time.  How- 
ever the  raiser's  time  can  be  estimated  and  debited  against  the  flock  each 
month,  if  desired.  The  balance  sheet  at  the  end  of  a  year,  will  then  show  the 
net  profit  of  the  fleck.  In  the  column  headed  "Equipment"  should  be  charged 
such  purchases  as  brooders,  incubators,  etc.  Glass,  roofing  paper,  lumber,  etc., 
should  be  charged  under  "Miscellaneous."  If  day-old  chicks  are  sold  they 
should  be  credited  under  "Breeding  Stock." 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  SHEET 


Dr. 


Date 

Item 

Feed 

Equip- 
ment 

Labor 

Mis- 
cella- 
neous 

Total 

1918 
Apr      1 

Lumber                        

$3.00 

$3.00 

6 

Carpenter  work  on  brooder                 .      .  . 

3.00 

3  00 

7 

1  indoor  brooder    

3.25 

3  25 

8 

6  gallons  kerosene  

$2.00 

2  00 

g 

3  bushels  wheat  .             

$4.00 

4  00 

10 

4  bushels  shelled  corn         

$8.00 

8  00 

11 

5  bushels  oats                    

.72 

72 

19 

100  pounds  beef  scrap      

5.75 

5  75 

21 

100  pounds  oyster  shell        

.80 

80 

25 

300  eggs  for  hatching       .        .  .    

3.75 

3  75 

Total                              

13.80 

8.00 

2  00 

10  47 

34  27 

CR. 


Date 

Item 

Mar- 
ket 
eggs 

Hatch- 
ing 
eggs 

Market 
P'ltry 

Breed- 
ing 
stock 

Mar- 
ket 
stock 

Total 

1918 
Apr.     4 

300  eggs,  hatching  (home  use)  

$2.40 

$2  40 

9 

100  eggs,  hatching  

$5  00 

5  00 

12 

10  dozen  eggs,  at  24  cents  

4.32 

• 

4  32 

14 

18  dozen  eggs,  at  24  cents  

$0.55 

55 

15 

1  pen  breeding  fowls  

1  80 

1  80 

16 

1  hen  (home  use)  

1.92 

1  92 

17 

3  market  hens      

3.45 

3  45 

19 

8  dozen  eggs  (home  use),  at  24  cents  

1.61 

1  61 

20 

15  dozen  eggs,  at  23  cents  

$5.75 

5  75 

20 

7  dozen  eggs  (home  use),  at  23  cents  

3  00 

3  00 

25 

50  day-old  chicks  

1.61 

1  61 

28 

7  dozen  eggs  (home  use),  at  23  cents  

3.00 

3  00 

30 

6  dozen  eggs,  at  22  cents  

1.32 

1  32 

Total  

16.63 

8  75 

2  35 

8  00 

35  73 

Yearly  Sheet. — The  totals  of  each  "Monthly  Record"  are  entered  on  this 
sheet  as  is  shown  by  the  sample  given.     (Shown  on  following  page.) 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS 


325 


Yearly  Summary  Sheet. 


DR. 


CR. 


Date 

Feed 

Equip- 
ment 

Labor 

Mis- 
cella- 
neous 

Total 

Mar- 
ket 
eggs 

Hatch- 
ing 
eggs 

Mar- 
ket 
P'ltry 

Breed- 
ing 
stock 

Total 

1919 
January  .  .  . 
February  .  . 
March  .... 
April     .... 

$11.25 
10.85 
11.50 
13.80 
13.00 

$18.00 

'20^00 
8.00 

$'2.'66 
"2:60 

$  2.45 
2.00 
9.90 
10.47 
5.35 

$31.70 
14.85 
41.40 
34.27 
18.35 
23.45 
15.25 
18.75 
17.70 
18.85 
17.23 
21.90 

$21.65 
24.83 
20.66 
16.63 
11.52 
6.00 
7.08 
5.37 
9.10 
8.60 
8.17 
12.56 

$  2.35 

$22.00 
40.66 
35.73 
36.95 
39.23 
31.02 
36.61 
22.90 
23.27 
24.00 
28.13 
28.27 

3.30 

$  6.50 
8.75 
4.50 
5.75 
2.00 

3.50 
2.35 
4.25 
15.20 
22.15 
13.90 
10.80 
4.40 
7.85 
4.05 

$10.00 
8.00 
8.00 
10.00 
8.00 
4.00 
3.00 
9.00 
15.00 
20.00 

May 

June 

15  50 

2.50 

5.45 
1.10 

July 

14  15 

August 

13  80 

4.95 

September  . 
October  .  .  . 
November  . 
December  . 

Total  .  .  . 

1^.00 
16.10 
4.80 
13.75 

2.25 

"l.OO 

.45 
2.75 
1.43 
8.15 

163.50 

46.00 

9.75 

54.45 

273.70 

152.17 

27.50 

94.10 

95.00 

368.77 

Balance  Sheet. 

Balance  Sheet. — On  this  sheet  are  entered  the  year's  expenditures  and 
receipts  which  are  the  totals  of  the  "yearly  summary  sheet."  Also  the  totals 
of  the  invoice  sheets  are  entered,  etc.,  as  can  be  easily  understood  by  sample. 


Dr. 

Cr. 

Bal. 

Value  of  inventory  January   1    1918                                   .... 

$409.00 

Interest  at  6  per  cent  on  capital  invested,  as  represented  by 

24.64 

273.70 

$479.70 

Receipts  during  1918                                                       

368.77 

Total                                                                           

$707.24 

$848.47 

$141.23 

326  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Inventory  Sheet. 

Inventory  Sheet. — This  sheet  is  used  at  the  beginning  of  each  year  to 
take  a  complete  inventory  of  the  value  of  the  equipment,  feed,  stock,  etc.  Each 
item  should  be  listed  at  its  value  the  time  the  inventory  is  taken.  If  buildings 
are  well  constructed  allow  about  5  percent  deterioration  for  each  year  they 
have  been  built.  The  deterioration  on  incubators  that  have  received  good 
care  is  about  10  percent.  The  inventory  does  not  necessarily  need  to  be  taken 
on  January  1st;  October  1st  or  November  1st  will  do  just  as  well. 

INVENTORY,  JANUARY  1,  1918 

1  henhouse,  15  by  40  feet $150.00 

1  240-egg  incubator 24.00 

2  indoor  brooders 17 . 00 

2  colony  houses,  8  by  8  feet  each 45 . 00 

Miscellaneous — feed  troughs,  pails,  pans,  etc 15 . 00 

1  bushel  wheat ' 2.00 

1  bushel  corn 1 . 00 

100  pounds  beef  scrap 3 . 50 

150  pounds  bran 2 . 50 

50  barred  Plymouth  Rock  hens 50 . 00 

50  barred  Plymouth  Rock  pullets 75 . 00 

5  barred  Plymouth  Rock  cock  birds 10 . 00 

7  barred  Plymouth  Rock  cockerels 14 . 00 

Total..  ..$409.00 


INVENTORY,  JANUARY  1,  1919 

1  henhouse,  15  by  40  feet;  5  per  cent  deterioration $142 . 50 

1  240-egg  incubator;  10  per  cent  deterioration 21 . 60 

1  150-egg  incubator,  new 18 . 00 

2  indoor  brooders;  10  per  cent  deterioration 15 . 30 

1  indoor  brooder,  new 8 . 00 

2  colony  houses,  8  by  8  feet  each,  repaired;  no  deterioration 45 . 00 

Miscellaneous — feed  troughs,  pails,  pans,  etc 15 . 00 

2  bushels  wheat 3.00 

1  bushel  oats .70 

100  pounds  bran 1 .80 

50  pounds  beef  scraps 1 . 80 

27  barred  Plymouth  Rock  hens 27 .00 

95  barred  Plymouth  Rock  pullets 150.00 

2  barred  Plymouth  Rock  cock  birds 4 . 00 

12  barred  Plymouth  Rock  cockerels 26 .00 

Tota.1 $479.70 


POULTRY  RAISING— CHICKENS 


327 


:OMB 


SICKLES          EAR    LOBE 
SADDLE 


SKELETON  OF  A  FOWL 


TREATMENT   FOR    DISEASES    OF    CHICKENS. 


(Value  of  Prevention.) 

As  a  means  of  profit,  poultry  raising  can  be  made  successful  only  by  main- 
taining the  most  vigorous  campaign  against  disease.  The  best  way  to  carry  on 
this  campaign  is  by  preventive  measures.  Too  few  people  ever  think  of  disease 
until  it  makes  its  appearance,  and  to  ignorance,  carelessness  and  lack  of  fore- 
thought in  this  respect,  is  due,  to  a  large  extent,  the  prevalence  of  poultry 
diseases. 

Fowls  are  often  affected  by  a  number  of  diseases  which  spread  rapidly 
through  the  flock  and  kill  a  large  part  of  the  birds.  They  are  also  infested  by 
different  kinds  of  parasites  which  live  in  the  crop,  intestines,  or  stomach  of  the 
bird  and  on  the  surface  of  the  body.  These  parasites  are  injurious  as  they  take 
a  part  of  the  nourishment  which  should  be  used  by  the  fowl  to  produce  eggs  or 
to  put  on  flesh,  and  also  because  their  biting  and  their  movements  cause  irritation 
to  the  parts  which  they  attack. 

Important  Conditions  to  Consider. — The  most  important  conditions 
which  the  poultryman  has  to  consider  in  an  endeavor  to  keep  his  fowls  in  a 
healthy  condition,  are  the  larger  parasites  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made 
which  causes  weakness  and  loss  of  flesh  and  the  contagious  diseases,  which  are 
caused  by  vegetable  and  animal  germs.  These  parasites  and  germs  should  be 
kept  out  of  the  flock  by  preventive  measures.  Disease  can  be  prevented  much 
more  easily  and  with  far  less  expense  than  it  can  be  cured.  A  person  should 
therefore  study  diseases  not  so  much  with  the  idea  of  knowing  how  to  cure  them 
as  knowing  how  to  prevent  them. 

Many  times  medicines  can  be  advantageously  applied  or  given  to  fowls, 
however,  as  a  rule,  if  the  patient  is  not  a  very  valuable  bird,  it  is  better  to  kill 
it  because  the  time  and  work  required  for  treatment  is  worth  more  than  the 
bird.  Again  a  sick  bird  may  be  affected  with  some  contagious  disease  which 
may  spread  through  the  entire  flock  before  it  is  recognized.  Another  reason  for 
killing  sick  birds  is  that  they  are  more  susceptible  to  disease  than  the  other  birds 
of  the.  flock,  so  they  should  be  culled  out  in  order  to  establish  a  strong  flock, 
capable  of  resisting  disease. 

Preventing  Disease. 

Elements  Necessary. — Stock  with  vigorous  constitutions ;  proper  feeding 
and  housing;  absolute  cleanliness;  start  chicks  right. 

328 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  329 

Breed  for  Health.— "Like  produces  like."  Do  not  expect  birds  with  weak 
constitutions  to  produce  healthy  chicks.  Breed  from  the  best  stock  you  have. 
Breed  for  health.  Health  gives  one  a  solid  bed-rock  foundation  upon  which  to 
build  a  strain  well  fitted  to  develop  all  the  other  desirable  qualities.  The  ten- 
dencies to  certain  weaknesses  are  readily  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring. 
When  these  tendencies  are  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation  they 
become  more  firmly  fixed.  The  strong,  vigorous  birds  should  be  mated  and  the 
weak  strains  eliminated. 

Indications  of  Health. — Use  the  birds  with  bright  eyes;  bright,  smooth, 
well-kept  plumage ;  red  comb ;  those  that  are  alert,  active,  and  have  a  keen  ap- 
petite. Examine  the  body  to  see  that  it  is  free  from  defects  and  deformities, 
especially  the  legs.  The  legs  should  be  bright,  clean,  clear,  and  well  formed. 

Legs  Show  Condition. — The  legs  of  a  fowl  indicate  its  condition  as  much 
as  the  pulse  of  a  person.  If  the  veins  on  the  legs  are  prominent,  if  the  legs  feel 
dry  and  hot  to  the  touch,  especially  if  this  condition  is  accompanied  by  a  hot 
breath  and  dry  mouth,  separate  the  bird  from  the  others  until  you  find  out  what 
is  wrong. 

Do  Not  Breed  "Cured"  Fowls. — Birds  that  have  been  sick  are  dangerous 
as  breeders.  They  are  necessarily  the  weak  ones,  besides  there  is  always  the 
danger  of  their  not  being  entirely  cured.  Some  taint  often  remains  which  may 
transmit  a  predisposition  to  disease  to  the  offspring. 

Feeding  to  Prevent  Disease. — Be  sure  that  the  chickens  receive  the  kinds 
of  feed  and  the  right  amounts  to  supply  their  needs.  In  winter  they  must  be 
given  the  feeds  that  take  the  place  of  what  they  pick  up  on  the  range  during  the 
summer  months.  Even  in  summer  they  do  not  always  get  all  they  need.  This 
must  be  supplied  them  if  necessary. 

Housing  to  Prevent  Disease. — See  that  the  fowls  have  plenty  of  fresh  air 
but  avoid  drafts  and  damp  coops.  Do  not  allow  the  birds  out  when  there  is 
snow  on  the  ground.  Colds  lead  to  other  troubles  and  result  in  loss  to  the 
owner.  Besides  fresh  air  the  fowls  also  need  sunlight  in  order  to  be  healthy. 
If  possible,  the  coop  should  be  so  situated  that  during  the  day,  sunlight  pene- 
trates to  all  parts  of  it.  Fresh  air  and  sunlight  are  purifiers  and  natural  disin- 
fectants. This  applies  to  all  poultry  buildings.  Many  brooder  houses  which 
seem  to  be  veritable  death  traps  and  which  have  proven  unsatisfactory,  will 
work  well  if  they  are  changed  so  as  to  let  in  the  sun  whenever  possible.  Of 
course  the  chicks  should  be  able  to  get  in  the  shade  when  they  choose.  Feed- 
ing and  housing  play  a  large  part  in  keeping  the  birds  healthy  and  vigorous. 
Give  them  a  home. 

Cleanliness  in  Preventing  Disease. — If  everything  about  the  place  were 
kept  clean,  there  would  be  little  trouble  from  diseases  in  poultry.  Keep  clean 
litter  on  the  floor  of  the  poultry  buildings  and  clean  the  coop  thoroughly  at  least 
once  a  week.  Have  a  dropping  board  to  catch  the  manure  at  night.  This  should 
be  cleaned  at  least  twice  a  week  in  summer.  Scald  out  the  drinking  basins  to 
keep  them  free  from  germs  and  clean  the  hoppers.  Do  not  keep  poultry  on  the 
same  ground  season  after  season.  The  ground  becomes  infected  and  harbors 


330 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


insects  and  disease  germs.  Old  ground  should  be  treated  to  kill  these  germs  by 
applying  a  good  coating  of  freshly  slaked  lime  to  the  entire  surface  and  then 
plowing  a  few  days  afterwards.  It  may  then  be  cultivated  3  or  4  times  with 
intervals  of  a  week  and  then  sowing  it  finally  to  rye,  oats  or  other  grain.  The 
greater  part  of  the  germs  will  be  destroyed  in  a  few  months,  however,  if  possible 
the  ground  should  be  left  unoccupied  by  fowls  through  the  winter,  as  the  freez- 
ing and  thawing  is  more  effective  in  killing  the  germs  than  continued  warm 
or  cold  weather.  Keep  the  coop  disinfected  and  whitewashed.  Whitewash 
once  a  year  at  least.  In  the  spring  or  fall  is  a  good  time. 

Start  Chicks  Right. — Be  sure  that  the  chicks  are  not  infested  with  germs 
at  the  start.  If  a  hen  is  used  to  hatch  the  eggs,  she  should  be  free  from  lice 
and  mites.  Keep  her  dusted  with  a  good  insect  powder.  Be  sure  the  nest  is 
free  from  vermin.  Avoid  putting  eggs  to  be  hatched  in  any  packing  such  as  oats, 
chaff,  or  cut  straw  which  may  be  musty  or  moldy ;  wipe  the  eggs  with  a  cloth 
wet  in  a  solution  of  70  per  cent,  to  80  per  cent,  alcohol.  If  an  incubator  is  used 
have  it  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected.  The  young  chicks  should  be  free 
from  parasites  and  injurious  germs  of  all  kinds.  To  keep  them  in  this  condition 
put  them  in  clean,  disinfected  brooders,  and  allow  them  to  run  only  upon  that 
ground  which  has  been  free  from  poultry  for  several  years.  If  this  cannot  be 
done,  disinfect  the  soil  as  mentioned  above. 

By  beginning  this  way,  a  flock  can  be  had  practically  free  from  parasites  and 
disease  germs,  but  to  keep  them  in  this  condition  frequently  clean  and  disinfect 
the  premises.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this.  First,  the  germs  of  contagious 
diseases  may  be  brought  to  the  place  by  pigeons  or  other  birds  which  fly  from  one 
poultry  yard  to  another,  or  by  rats  or  mice ;  second,  certain  germs  are  generally 
present  in  the  intestines  of  healthy  birds  and  are  scattered  with  the  manure, 
which,  if  permitted  to  accumulate  and  become  verv  numerous  may  cause  out- 
breaks of  disease ;  third,  grounds  for  the  poultry  are  seldom  entirely  free  from 
infection  with  the  eggs  of  parasitic  worms  and  the  spores  of  disease-producing 
microbes.  To  keep  these  parasites  and  germs  from  'developing  and  increasing 
their  numbers,  the  feed  troughs  and  drinking  fountains  should  be  washed  every 
day  or  two  with  boiling  water  or  other  disinfectant  and  the  brooders  and  run- 
ways thoroughly  disinfected.  One  should  study  diseases  to  know  how  to  pre- 
vent them.  Eliminate  the  cause  of  the  disease  and  the  disease  itself  will  soon 
disappear. 

SIMPLE  REMEDIES. 
(Their  Uses  and  Doses.) 

Following  is  a  list  of  simple  remedies  and  a  few  articles  which  the  progres- 
sive poultryman  should  include  in  his  medicine  chest.  A  small  glass,  graduated 
into  ounces  for  measuring  liquids  ;  a  glass  tumbler  in  which  to  mix  remedies  •  a 
teaspoon ;  small  pair  of  tweezers ;  medicine  dropper,  small  oil  can  with  which  to 
apply  roup  or  cold  cures  by  direct  application  when  several  birds  are  affected- 
sharp  pen  knife.  All  powders  should  be  removed  from  the  packages  placed 
in  small,  air-tight  cans  and  neatly  labeled. 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT 


331 


Medicine 

Strength  of  Dose 

Disease  Used  For 

Castor  oil  

1  teaspoonful. 

Diarrhea,  indigestion,  etc. 

Epsom  salts.   . 

20   to  30   grains  in   tea- 
spoonful  warm  water. 

Constipation,     liver    dis- 
ease, diarrhea. 

Calomel  

1  to  2  grains. 

Constipation,    diarrhea, 
liver  disease. 

Quinine  

1  grain. 

Fever,  colds,  roup. 

Aconite  

1  drop. 

Fever,  colds,  roup. 

Turpentine 

(Internal)  5  to  10  drops  in 
1  teaspoonful  castor  oil. 

Worms,  colds,  sore  throat. 

Bruises,   skin  injuries, 
cramp  and  rheumatism. 

(External). 

Carbolic  acid  

*1  to  5  percent  solution. 
y<t  to  2  percent  sohitiota. 
50  percent. 

Roup,    colds,    diphtheria, 
injuries  and  cuts. 

Permanganate   of   Potash  .... 

Hydrogen  peroxide  

Creolin  and  sweet  oil  

Equal  parts  of  each. 

Dressing  cuts  and  injuries. 

Iodine  

Tincture. 

Reduce  swellings. 

Sweet  oil  

1  ounce. 

Cramp,  rheumatism,  keep- 
ing legs  polished. 

Ointment: 
Kerosene  

1  part. 
1  part. 
2  parts. 

Scaly   legs,    ticks,    mites, 
lice. 

Sulphur  

Lard  

Kerosene 

Scaly  legs. 

Lice  powders. 

Mites,  lice. 

Tincture  of  iron  

In  drinking  water,  enough 
to  color. 

Tonic. 

Carbonate  of  iron  

Little    in    mash,    during 
molting  time. 

Produce  gloss  in  feathers. 

Potassium  sulphide  

Small  amount  in  drinking 
water. 

Cholera. 

Copper  sulphate  

2  drams  in  1  gallon  water. 

Intestinal  disinfectant. 

*  A  1  percent  solution— (approximately)  1^  teaspoonfuls  to  1  pint  water.  This  is  accurate 
enough  for  practical  purposes.  By  figuring  from  this  any  of  the  dilutions  wanted  can  be  easily 
prepared. 


332 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Apoplexy. 

This  disease  is  usually  caused  by  the  rupture  of  a  blood  vessel  brought 
about  by  too  high  feeding,  sudden  fright,  violent  exertion  or  straining  in  laying 
eggs.  Birds  are  sometimes  found  dead  in  the  nest. 

Treatment. — There  is  usually  no  previous  warning  or  symptoms  and  in 
most  cases  treatment  is  impossible. 

If  the  bird  is  still  alive,  pierce  a  vein  underneath  the  wing  causing  the  blood 
to  run  freely  and  reducing  the  blood  pressure  on  the  brain.  In  this  way  one 
will  usually  produce  a  cure. 

Regulate  the  diet  to  reduce  the  fat  and  give  plenty  of  exercise. 

Aspergillosis. 

This  is  a  disease  which  exists  more  often  than  is  expected.  It  attacks  the 
respiratory  or  digestive  organs  of  fowls.  In  adults,  the  disease  may  be  mis- 
taken for  tuberculosis  and  in  chicks  for  white  diarrhea.  Aspergillosis  of 
chickens  is  dealt  with  under  brooder  pneumonia. 

A  fungoid  growth  in  the  wind  pipe  and  bronchial  tubes,  sometimes  ex- 
tending to  the  lungs  and  liver.  Infection  may  be  due  to  musty  hay,  straw  or 
grain. 

Symptoms. — Fowls  gradually  lose  weight,  mope  and  die  without  any 
pronounced  ailment  except  difficulty  in  breathing  and  extreme  weakness. 

Preventive  Treatment. — This  is  a  most  difficult  disease  to  cure.  It  can 
be  prevented  by  feeding  no  musty  grain  and  giving  only  clean,  bright  chaff  or 
straw  to  scratch  in. 

Sometimes  affected  fowls  may  be  saved  by  applying  flowers  of  sulphur  or 
tincture  of  iodine  to  the  patches  seen  in  the  mouth  and  throat  and  causing  the 
birds  to  inhale  the  vapor  of  tar  water  or  turpentine.  Tar  water  is  obtained  by 
adding  two  tablespoonfuls  of  wood  tar  to  a  quart  of  warm  water  and  letting 
the  mixture  stand  a  few  hours.  Then  the  birds  are  taken  into  a  closed  room 
where  the  tar  water  is  poured,  a  small  quantity  at  a  time  on  a  hot  brick  or  stone 
until  the  atmosphere  is  charged  with  the  vapor. 

Brooder  Pneumonia. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs  caused  by  the  growth  of  the  aspergillus 
fungus  in  the  smaller  air  tubes  and  in  the  lung  tissue. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  very  similar  to  those  described  in  white 
diarrhea  and  the  disease  may  be  easily  mistaken  for  the  same.  However,  the 
breathing  is  more  rapid  and  difficult  and  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  sounds 
due  to  obstruction  of  the  air  tubes.  The  white  diarrhea  is  usually  present  in 
the  lung  disease  as  well  as  in  the  intestinal  infection. 

Treatment. — The  sick  chicks  can  seldom  be  cured  and  so  all  efforts  should 
be  directed  toward  prevention.  The  measures  mentioned  for  the  prevention  of 
white  diarrhea  are  applicable  to  brooder  pneumonia.  It  is  probable  this  disease  is 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  333 

generally  caused  by  failure  to  maintain  proper  cleanliness  and  ventilation.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  disinfect  the  incubator  and  brooder  thoroughly  in  which  the 
chicks  are  to  be  hatched  and  reared. 

Bumblefoot. 

Bumblefoot  is  caused  by  some  bruise  or  injury  such  as  jumping  from  a  high 
roost  upon  some  hard  substance  or  by  stepping  on  bits  of  glass  or  splinter. 

Symptoms. — Inflamed  condition  of  the  bottom  of  the  foot.  Usually  pus 
forms  under  the  skin  in  the  form  of  an  abscess.  As  the  pressure  is  increased, 
there  is  a  tendency  of  the  pus  to  work  out  into  other  parts  of  the  foot  and  leg. 
The  fowl  limps  and  is  inclined  to  stand  on  one  foot. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  fowl  in  a  clean,  dry  place  and  do  not  allow  much 
exercise  until  the  wound  heals.  It  is  best  to  bandage  the  foot  and  dress  with 
fresh  vaseline  each  day.  Wash  in  strong  vinegar  or  paint  with  iodine.  If  pus 
has  formed,  drain  it  and  wash  thoroughly  with  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  After 
this  apply  30  parts  vaseline  and  one  part  iodoform. 

Canker. 

Ill  smelling  quarters  and  feeding  unclean  and  diseased  foods  produce  canker 
in  fowls.  Musty  or  "rotten"  grain  is  also  apt  to  induce  the  trouble. 

Symptoms. — Sores  on  the  head  and  often  in  the  mouth  and  throat,  with 
a  discharge  of  matter  from  the  eyes. 

Treatment. — Cleanse  the  sores  with  one-third  peroxide  to  two  thirds 
water  three  times  daily.  Then  apply  lard  mixed  with  sulphur.  Mix  up  a  light 
solution  of  permanganate  of  potash  and  add  to  the  drinking  water,  giving  them 
no  other  water  to  drink. 

Catarrh  or  Bronchitis. 

Catarrh  or  irritation  of  the  air  passages  affecting  the  tubes  of  the  lungs,  is 
termed  bronchitis. 

Symptoms. — It  can  be  detected  by  a  whistling  sound  in  the  breast.  The 
bird  acts  stupid  and  may  gasp  for  breath.  In  bad  cases  breathing  is  difficult. 

Treatment. — Place  the  sick  fowl  in  a  dry  room  where  there  is  plenty  of 
fresh  air. 

Aconite. — Give  twenty  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  in  a  quart  of  drinking 
water.  In  mild  cases  this  will  be  found  sufficient  provided  the  sanitary  condi- 
tions are  as  they  should  be.  Flaxseed  tea  is  also  recommended.  If  taken  in 
time,  10  drops  of  turpentine  in  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil  will  relieve.  Give  one 
teaspoonful  of  glycerine  in  which  four  drops  of  vinegar  has  been  dissolved.  Re- 
peat each  night  for  a  week.  Mix  equal  parts  of  vinegar  and  water.  Give  one 
teaspoonful  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

Catarrh  of  the  Crop. 

Eating  putrifying  or  stale  food  or  some  poisonous  matter. 

Symptoms. — Fowls  are  found  to  have  distended  crops  which  upon  ex- 


334  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

amination  are  found  to  be  filled  with  gas  and  foul  smelling  fluid  but  very  little 
food.  The  bird  becomes  sluggish,  the  feathers  rough  and  the  comb  dull  in 
color. 

Treatment. — Empty  the  crop  by  holding  the  head  downward  and  carefully 
pressing  the  contents  out  through  the  mouth.  Giving  one-tenth  grain  tablet  of 
bichloride  of  mercury  dissolved  in  one  quart  of  drinking  water.  Weed  soft, 
easily  digested  food. 

Catarrh  of  Stomach  (Gastritis). 

Enlargement  or  swelling  of  the  food  passage  near  the  gizzard.  It  is  sel- 
dom met  with  except  in  connection  with  catarrh  or  inflammation  of  the  crop.  It 
may  be  caused  by  overfeeding,  eating  decomposed  food  or  other  poisonous 
matter. 

Symptoms. — Lack  of  appetite,  bowel  trouble,  diarrhea  one  day  and  con- 
stipation the  next,  some  fever  and  general  weakness. 

Treatment. — Do  not  feed  irritating  food.  Omit  from  mash  all  bran  and 
mix  with  clover  tea.  Add  one-tenth  of  a  grain  of  arsenite  of  copper  to  each 
pint  of  drinking  water. 

The  irritation  may  be  allayed  by  a  little  rice  boiled  in  the  drinking 
water. 

Chicken  Pox  or  Sore  Head. 

Chicken  pox  is  strictly  a  contagious  disease.  It  may  be  introduced  by 
an  infected  bird;  by  lice  or  other  insect  pests. 

Symptoms. — Small,  scabby,  wart-like  growth  varying  in  size  from  a  mil- 
let seed  to  that  of  a  pea,  on  the  comb,  wattles  and  ear  lobes. 

Treatment. — Mild  cases  of  this  disease  may  be  successfully  treated  by 
local  applications.  Isolate  affected  fowls. 

Apply  tincture  of  iodine  after  removing  the  scabs.  Or  creolin  2  percent 
solution  may  be  used  instead  of  the  iodine. 

Apply  a  solution  of  boric  acid  to  the  affected  parts.  Some  prefer  carbolated 
oil  to  watery  solutions.  If  there  is  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  the  boric  acid 
solution  may  be  used  as  a  wash. 

Bathe  head  and  eyes  with  equal  parts  water  and  witch  hazel. 

For  the  eruption  there  is  nothing  better  than  common  vaseline.  Feed 
a  mash  of  one-third  clover  mixed  with  boiling  milk.  Avoid  exposure  to  cold 
and  wet. 

Cholera. 

Cholera  of  poultry  is  a  virulent,  usually  fatal,  contagious  disease.  Many 
simple  ailments  of  poultry  are  accompanied  by  diarrhea,  but  the  poultrymen 
should  bear  in  mind  that  a  troublesome  diarrhea  is  not  always  cholera. 

Cholera  is  caused  by  infection,  brought  on  usually  by  food  or  drink  which 
has  been  infected  by  the  discharges  of  diseased  fowls.  The  germs  often  gain 
entrance  to  the  body  by  inhaling  the  dust  in  coops  which  have  not  been 
properly  disinfected  or  by  eating  the  flesh  of  fowls  which  have  died  of  the 
disease. 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  335 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  appetite,  great  thirst  and  high  temperature.  If 
a  fever  thermometer  is  placed  next  to  the  flesh  under  the  wing,  it  will  often 
register  110  degrees.  The  crop  is  usually  distended  with  food  which  cannot 
pass  owing  to  the  paralysis  of  that  organ.  Sleepiness  which  may  last  until 
death.  A  rapidly  fatal  disease,  always  accompanied  by  copious,  yellowish  or 
deep  blue  green  diarrhea.  Infection  of  a  large  number  of  birds  in  one  flock. 
Caution :  A  combination  of  indigestion  and  lice  produce  symptoms  which  are 
very  much  like  those  of  cholera.  Nine-tenths  of  the  reported  cases  of  cholera 
are  not  that  disease  at  all.  Get  rid  of  the  vermin,  supply  charcoal,  grit,  feed 
less  corn  and  you  have  the  best  cholera  remedy  there  is. 

Treatment. — If  sure  your  chickens  have  cholera,  the  treatment  should 
mainly  be  preventive.  Observe  cleanliness  in  every  way.  Do  not  use  eggs  for 
hatching  unless  you  know  they  are  from  healthy  stock.  Isolate  all  suspected 
cases  as  soon  as  found.  Give  these  birds  a  few  drops  of  creolin  in  their  drink- 
ing water,  just  enough  to  turn  it  slightly  milky — or  give  them  drinking  water 
in  which  has  been  dissolved  one-tenth  of  a  grain  tablet  of  corrosive  sublimate 
to  a  quart  of  water.  If  they  develop  marked  symptoms  of  cholera,  they  had 
better  be  killed  and  cremated  at  once.  Kill  by  strangulation  or  the  blow  of  a 
club.  If  blood  is  drawn  it  will  be  a  means  of  infection  for  other  fowls.  Spray 
the  building  with  a  5  percent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  then  whitewash  it. 

A  good  home  remedy  in  any  case  of  diarrhea  and  often  in  mild  cases  of 
cholera,  is  to  drop  twenty  to  thirty  drops  of  spirits  of  camphor  on  sugar  and 
dissolve  the  whole  in  a  pint  of  water;  allow  no  other  drink.  As  a  diet  give 
them  stale  bread  soaked  in  scalded  milk  and  well  seasoned  with  pepper. 

A  Prescription. — In  use  for  twenty  years  and  found  to  be  one  of  the  most 
successful  remedies  ever  tried :  Carbonate  of  iron,  8  ounces ;  pulverized  golden 
seal,  1  ounce;  pulverized  rhubarb,  3  ounces;  pulverized  capsicum,  3  ounces; 
flowers  of  sulphur,  8  ounces ;  pulverized  charcoal,  4  ounces.  Mix  thoroughly 
together.  Keep  in  air-tight  can.  For  chicken  cholera  make  a  pill  of  this 
remedy  the  size  of  a  small  pea  and  force  the  sick  bird  to  swallow  by  forcing 
the  mouth  open  and  dropping  into  the  throat.  As  a  preventive,  put  1  tea- 
spoonful  in  feed  enough  for  twelve  hens.  Use  this  three  times  a  week.  It  will 
also  increase  egg  production  fifty  percent. 

Coccidiosis  (Brooder  Pneumonia  in  Chicks — Blackhead  in  Turkeys). 

This  disease  germ  does  not  usually  affect  adult  fowls  seriously  but  causes 
severe  loss  in  chicks  and  turkeys.  In  chicks  it  is  known  as  brooder  pneumonia 
and  in  turkeys  as  blackhead. 

The  same  germ  causes  this  disease  that  produces  blackhead  in  turkeys. 
Pigeons  are  particularly  susceptible  to  it  and  are  often  responsible  for  the 
outbreak  in  poultry  yards  as  it  is  spread  by  contagion.  The  germ  (coccida) 
multiply  very  rapidly  in  the  intestines  of  the  diseased  fowls  and  are  discharged 
with  the  droppings  and  carried  on  the  feet  to  the  drinking  and  feed  troughs 
unless  they  are  well  protected. 

Symptoms. — When  adult  fowls  are  attacked,  the  symptoms  are  stupid- 
ness,  laziness  and  sometimes  diarrhea.  The  fowl  loses  weight  although  the 
appetite  is  retained  for  a  time. 


336  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Treatment. — Put  three  grains  of  copperas  to  one  quart  of  water,  or  fifteen 
grains  of  catechu  to  one  gallon  water  and  give  the  birds  to  drink.  This  has 
been  a  very  successful  remedy.  They  should  also  be  given  a  dose  of  calomel 
(three-fourths  to  one  grain)  or  two  to  three  teaspoonfuls  of  castor  oil  occasion- 
ally. 

Give  doses  of  castor  oil  containing  5  to  10  drops  of  turpentine  with  each 
dose.  Disinfect  the  premises  thoroughly  with  a  10  percent  solution  of  cresol. 
Burn  the  bodies  of  all  birds  that  die. 

Crop  Bound. 

Crop  bound  is  caused  by  food  swelling  and  forming  a  hard  mass  in  the 
crop.  Fowls  deprived  of  the  necessary  vegetable  diet  often  eat  the  litter, 
bringing  on  this  condition.  The  absence  of  grit  in  the  food  has  the  same  result. 
Sometimes  a  quantity  of  green  leaves  or  grass  is  eaten  by  the  fowl  and  be- 
comes packed  in  the  crop,  making  the  passage  of  food  impossible. 

Treatment. — In  some  cases  an  operation  is  necessary.  However,  the 
following  treatment  is  recommended:  Sweet  oil,  olive  oil,  or  fresh  melted 
lard  should  be  poured  down  the  throat;  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  ounce 
of  any  one  of  above  remedies.  With  the  hand,  work  the  contents  of  the  crop 
so  as  to  break  up  the  hard  mass.  Then  give  the  bird  warm  water  to  drink  and 
soft,  easily  digested  food  for  a  few  days. 

Diarrhea. 

Indigestion  caused  by  food  which  is  too  laxative  or  food  which  may  be 
partly  decomposed.  A  cold  may  also  be  a  cause. 

Symptoms. — Looseness  of  bowels  and  staining  of  feathers  around  the 
anus  with  excreta. 

Treatment. — Give  Epsom  salts,  20  to  50  grains  in  food  or  warm  water. 

Give  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil.  Change  diet  if  food  is  suspected.  Often 
no  treatment  is  necessary  but  it  is  not  wise  to  neglect  a  mild  case  for  fear  of 
the  development  of  "Severe  Diarrhea  or  Epidemic." 

Diphtheria. 

In  diphtheria  we  find  some  of  the  symptoms  of  roup  or  contagious. catarrh, 
but  it  differs  from  these  by  raised  patches  of  whitish  or  yellow  skin  which  in- 
vades the  throat  and  mouth,  and  sometimes  appears  like  sores  or  ulcers  on  the 
face,  comb,  nostrils  and  eyes. 

Diphtheria  of  fowls  is  strictly  contagious  and  probably  never  develops  as 
the  result  of  cold  or  dampness.  The  contagion  is  spread  through  mucus  which 
escapes  from  the  nostrils  or  that  which  is  forced  out  by  sneezing  or  coughing. 
When  the  disease  is  present,  the  feeding  troughs,  drinking  pans,  etc.,  are 
quickly  infected  and  thus  the  disease  is  conveyed  to  the  well  birds. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  first  show  themselves  by  irritation  or  inflam- 
mation of  the  surface  of  the  throat,  mouth,  nostrils  or  eyes,  sometimes  ex- 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  337 

tending  from  the  air  tubes  to  the  lungs  or  from  the  gullet  to  the  crop.  The 
poison  which  is  produced  by  the  growth  of  the  microbe  beneath  the  false 
membranes  is  absorbed  and  affects  the  nervous  system  causing  depression 
and  sleepiness.  At  this  time,  which  may  be  three  to  five  days  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  first  symptoms,  the  condition  is  very  serious.  The  breathing 
is  so  obstructed  that  hardly  sufficient  air  can  be  inhaled  to  support 'life.  The 
head  is  swollen,  there  is  considerable  fever  and  an  exhausting  diarrhea  sets 
in.  There  is  loss  of  weight  and  death  soon  follows. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  diphtheria  requires  much  time  and  pa- 
tience and  unless  the  fowl  is  valuable,  does  not  pay.  It  is  better  to  kill  and 
burn  those  affected,  disinfect  the  houses  and  in  that  way  stop  the  contagion 
as  soon  as  possible,  even  if  the  whole  flock  must  go.  If  the  birds  are  to  be 
treated,  remove  them  from  the  flock.  Make  a  swab  of  cotton  tied  on  a  stick 
and  swab  the  mouth  with  hydrogen  peroxide.  Remove  any  of  the  growths 
that  come  away  easily. 

A  solution  which  gives  good  results  is  35  grains  of  chlorate  of  potash,  two 
grains  of  salicylic  acid  in  one  ounce  of  water  and  1  ounce  of  glycerine.  This 
to  be  applied  to  the  spots  three  or  four  times  daily. 

A  solution  consisting  of  one  and  one-half  ounces  boric  acid  and  one 
ounce  of  powdered  borax  dissolved  in  one  quart  of  water  and  applied  warm, 
is  good.  The  two  last  mentioned  solutions  may  be  used  as  an  eye  wash  or  in- 
jected in  the  nostrils.  Disinfect  the  rooms  where  the  sick  birds  stay  daily  with 
a  5  percent  solution  of  cresol  or  carbolic  acid. 

Diseases  of  the  Liver. 

The  liver  is  affected  by  several  diseases.  The  most  common  are  con- 
nected with  digestive  disorders.  Others  are  due  to  a  specific  disease  such  as 
tuberculosis  or  coccidiosis. 

The  diseases  which  are  due  to  indigestion  are  congestion,  inflammation, 
fatty  or  enlarged  liver  and  atrophy  of  the  liver.  While  there  is  a  distinct  dif- 
ference in  these  diseases,  the  methods  of  treatment  are  very  much  the  same. 

Wrong  feeding  is  usually  the  cause  of  this  trouble.  The  fowls  may  be 
eating  too  much  heat-producing  food  and  not  enough  green  food. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptoms  are  a  watery  diarrhea.  The  affected 
birds  show  no  appetite  and  lack  ambition  to  move  around.  Later  there  is  an 
increased  desire  for  water  and  the  fowls  lose  weight  rapidly. 

Treatment. — The  return  to  rational  food  is  the  first  step.  Give  more  green 
food.  Make  the  mash  as  largely  to  cut  clover  as  the  birds  will  eat.  Drop  out 
some  of  the  flour  and  corn  meal.  Encourage  exercise.  Give  as  scratching 
material  waste  from  hay  mows.  If  it  is  warm  weather,  give  the  birds  access 
to  a  clean  grass  run. 

At  the  first  appearance  of  liver  trouble,  give  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil. 
This  will  be  effective  if  given  in  time. 

For  worms,  add  one-half  teaspoonful  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  to  the  drink- 
ing water  of  each  bird. 


338  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Dropsy. 

It  may  be  due  to  a  sluggish  condition  of  the  circulation.  Overfeeding 
with  little  exercise  tends  to  bring  on  this  disease.  Dropsy  is  frequently  the 
manifestation  of  some  other  disease. 

Symptoms. — This  disease  usually  shows  itself  in  the  abdomen  where 
water  collects  and  causes  a  distention.  The  feet  and  legs  are  swollen. 

Treatment. — Unless  the  disease  is  caused  by  some  organic  trouble,  plain 
food,  green  vegetables  and  a  dose  or  two  of  castor  oil  will  probably  cure 
it.  As  the  legs  reduce  in  size,  give  more  exercise  to  stimulate  the  functions 
of  the  whole  body.  A  solution  of  one  teaspoonful  of  nux  vomica  to  two 
quarts  of  drinking  water  is  valuable  as  a  tonic.  If  the  fowl  has  some  other 
organic  trouble,  it  is  best  and  most  merciful  to  kill  it. 

Dysentery. 

Some  bacterial  or  other  specific  infection  of  the  intestines.  It  may  origi- 
nate from  a  filthy  condition  of  the  poultry  yards,  foul  floor,  filthy  water  or 
decomposed  food. 

Symptoms. — Extreme  looseness  of  the  bowels  with  more  or  less  blood  in 
the  discharge.  The  bird  shows  weakness  and  loss  of  appetite. 

Treatment. — First  place  the  yards  in  a  sanitary  condition.  Isolate  the 
sick  fowls.  Give  6  to  8  drops  of  chlorodyne  on  a  small  piece  of  bread.  The 
food  should  be  non-irritating  for  a  few  days.  Feed  wheat  rather  than  corn 
for  a  week. 

(For  small  chicks.)  Give  all  they  will  drink  three  or  four  times  a  day 
of  scalded  milk  to  which  has  been  added  a  little  grated  nutmeg. 

Feed  boiled  rice  sprinkled  with  fine  bone  meal. 

Egg-bound. 

Egg-bound  is  a  condition  of  the  egg  passage,  affecting  most  frequently 
the  heavy  breed  of  hens. 

The  cause  is  attributed  in  most  cases  to  an  over  fat  condition.  This  pro- 
duces pressure  on  the  egg  passage  causing  difficulty  in  the  proper  function. 
Sometimes  the  muscles  are  weakened  by  streaks  of  fat  which  cause  straining, 
the  weak  walls  give  way  permitting  the  egg  or  its  contents  to  pass  into  the 
abdominal  cavity.  This  condition  produces  inflammation. 

Symptoms. — The  fowl  thus  affected  has  a  constant  desire  to  strain.  The 
violent  strain  sometimes  ruptures  a  blood  vessel  causing  sudden  death. 

Treatment. — It  is  generally  more  merciful  to  kill  the  fowls  as  treatment 
is  tedious  and  painful. 

Hold  the  fowl's  vent  over  steam  from  boiling  water  and  then  pass  a 
finger  up  the  vent.  Have  the  finger  well  oiled.  If  the  case  is  bad,  pierce  the 
egg  and  remove  the  contents,  then  break  the  shell  and  withdraw  the  pieces. 
Be  sure  and  leave  none  of  the  broken  shell  behind. 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  339 

Egg  Eating. 

The  habit  of  egg  eating  may  be  caused  by  the  nests  being  low  and  near 
the  light.  The  hens  get  into  them,  scratch  around  and  break  the  eggs  and 
thus  form  the  egg-eating  habit.  Soft  shelled  or  broken  eggs  about  the  yards 
may  be  a  cause. 

Treatment. — Place  all  nests  at  least  2  feet  above  the  floor  and  in  a  medium 
dark  place.  Remove  all  signs  of  broken  eggs.  The  fowl  detected  should  be 
removed  to  a  different  place. 

Dump  a  pail  of  egg  shells  in  the  yard  and  mash  some  of  them.  One 
dose  should  cure  the  egg  eaters.  If  it  does  not,  get  more  and  keep  them 
constantly  on  hand.  "This  is  a  positive  cure  for  egg  eating"  writes  a  raiser 
who  ought  to  know. 

Remove  the  inside  of  an  egg  through  an  opening  in  one  end.  Mix  the 
contents  with  a  little  pepper;  put  them  back  into  the  shell  and  stick  a  piece 
of  white  cloth  over  the  broken  part.  Put  this  where  the  egg  eating  hen  can 
peck  it.  After  she  has  tried  to  eat  it  she  will  seldom  bother  about  eating  her 
eggs  again. 

Feather  Eating. 

It  is  usually  due  to  a  poultryman's  carelessness  in  some  way.  Over- 
crowding, improper  feeding  or  lack  of  exercise  are  prime  causes  of  these  habits. 

Bare  patches  and  injured  feathers  are  signs  of  feather  eating.  It  is  more 
common  during  the  molting  season. 

Treatment. — See  that  the  birds  get  all  the  animal  food  they  need.  Keep 
them  busy  scratching  for  their  food.  Isolate  the  offender  for  a  time. 

Drop  a  piece  of  sulphate  the  size  of  a  small  cherry  in  the  throat  of  the 
bird.  Repeat  the  third  day. 

Give  the  fowls  plenty  of  salt  in  their  feed  and  they  will  seldom  acquire 
this  habit. 

Boil  oats  till  soft  and  plump,  and  into  a  pail  of  this  mixture  stir  a  good 
pinch  of  salt  and  one  quart  of  beef  scrap.  Feed  this  to  the  birds. 

Mix  some  boiled  finely  cut  cow's  liver  with  oats  and  feed  every  morn- 
ing. 

Give  sour  milk  to  drink  and  cover  the  floor  with  clover  chaff  to  keep  the 
fowls  busy  scratching. 

Gapes. 

Gapes  is  a  disease  which  develops  in  small  chicks  and  is  caused  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  parasite  worm  which  attaches  itself  to  the  mucus  lining  of  the  wind- 
pipe. 

The  worm  which  causes  this  disease  is  sometimes  called  the  red  worm 
or  the  forked  worm  because  of  its  color  and  the  fact  that  the  male  and  female 
are  firmly  grown  together  in  forked  shape.  The  heads  of  both  are  attached 
to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  windpipe,  sucking  the  blood  and  causing  an 
irritation  and  obstruction  of  the  passage  to  such  an  extent  as  to  interfere 
seriously  with  the  breathing. 


340  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

The  symptoms  are  more  often  observed  in  chicks  from  ten  days  to 
four  weeks  old.  The  affected  birds  are  found  gaping,  sneezing  or  coughing 
with  an  effort.  When  badly  affected,  the  bird  shakes  its  head  frequently  as  if 
suffocating;  stands  in  a  "dumpish"  position  with  wings  drooped  and  mouth 
open. 

Treatment. — All  sick  birds  should  be  removed  from  the  well  ones.  Coops 
and  runs  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected.  To  the  coops  apply  an  appli- 
cation of  hot  whitewash.  The  ground  or  runs  should  be  well  limed  with  air- 
slaked  lime,  spaded  up  and  should  be  sprinkled  with  one  of  the  following  so- 
lutions :  A  two  percent  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  in  water  or  two  ounces  of 
copperas  (sulphate  of  iron)  dissolved  in  a  bucket  of  water,  or  a  solution  of 
permanganate  of  potassium  in  water,  half  an  ounce  of  the  crystals  in  a  barrel 
of  water;  or  a  strong  solution  of  creolin,  two  tablespoonfuls  in  each  gallon 
of  water.  The  ground  should  be  well  sprinkled  with  one  of  the  above  solutions 
after  infected  chicks  have  been  removed.  Then  plow  or  spade  and  sprinkle 
again.  Repeat  this  disinfection  whenever  infected  chicks  have  been  on  the 
ground.  Scald  all  drinking  vessels  used  by  sick  birds.  Burn  all  chicks  which 
die  of  gapes. 

Preventive  Treatment. — A  piece  of  copperas  placed  in  the  drinking  water 
is  said  to  prevent  contagion.  Tincture  of  asafetida,  a  teaspoonful  in  a  quart  of 
water,  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  and  has  a  curative  action.  Three  drams  of 
salicylate  of  soda  in  a  quart  of  drinking  water  is  also  recommended  as  a  pre- 
ventive. 

A  farmer  in  the  tobacco  raising  section  of  western  Ohio  was  bothered 
considerably  with  the  loss  of  a  number  of  small  chickens  from  gapes.  One 
day  he  was  burning  some  tobacco  stubs  and  a  number  of  the  gaping  young 
chicks  walked  into  the  smoke  smudge.  He  noticed  that  as  they  came  out  they 
were  coughing  and  appeared  to  be  greatly  relieved.  Deciding  to  experiment 
he  placed  some  others  that  were  almost  dead  in  the  smoke  for  a  short  time 
and  then  placed  them  in  the  open  or  fresh  air.  They  also  coughed  and  looking 
closely  he  found  numbers  of  dead  gape  worms  on  little  chips  on  the  ground. 
He  concluded  that  the  smoke  killed  the  gapes  which  were  smothering  the 
chicks  and.  the  fresh  air  revived  them  causing  the  worms  to  be  coughed  from 
the  throat. 

Just  put  a  small  cover  of  coals  in  a  basket  or  small  box  the  size  de- 
pending on  the  number  of  chickens,  and  cover  it  with  a  screen.  After 
placing  the  affected  chickens  in  the  box  place  some  dampened  tobacco  upon 
the  coals.  This  will  cause  a  smudge  and  the  chickens  will  have  to  inhale 
it.  Cover  the  box  for  a  minute  or  two.  When  the  chickens  begin  to  weave 
about  or  fall  over  take  them  out  into  the  fresh  air  which  will  revive  them  and 
start  coughing.  The  smoke  will  kill  the  worms,  the  coughing  will  expel  them 
and  the  chicken  is  relieved.  Other  chickens  picking  up  the  dead  worms  can- 
not be  affected  with  the  disease. 

Put  a  small  quantity  of  kerosene  into  the  pan  of  drinking  water  accessible 
to  the  chickens  with  gapes.  Put  several  pieces  of  camphor  gum  in  the  drink- 
ing pan. 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  341 

Going  Light. 

This  trouble  may  be  due  to  insufficient  or  poor  food,  lack  of  exercise  or 
poorly  ventilated  houses.  Lice  or  mites  may  be  contributing  cause,  and  it  may 
be  due  to  some  such  disease  as  tuberculosis,  aspergillosis  or  worms. 

Symptoms. — "Going  Light"  is  a  term  applied  to  fowls  which  lose  weight 
rapidly,  become  weak  and  emaciated  without  any  apparent  reason.  When 
lifted  they  seem  to  weigh  little  more  than  the  feathers  with  which  they  are 
covered. 

Treatment. — First,  if  possible,  discover  the  cause.  If  no  defect  is  found 
in  the  food  and  the  fowls  and  houses  are  free  from  lice,  much  time  may  often 
be  saved  by  killing  one  or  more  of  the  birds  and  making  a  post-mortem  ex- 
amination to  discover  if  the  trouble  is  caused  by  some  specific  disease.  Open 
the  intestines  the  entire  length  to  learn  if  there  are  a  sufficient  number  of 
worms  to  account  for  their  condition.  If  any  diseased  condition  is  found, 
follow  the  treatment  recommended  for  such  disease  found  elsewhere  in  this 
department. 

Indigestion. 

While  this  is  not  a  disease,  it  leads  to  many. 

The  cause  of  indigestion  is  traceable  to  improper  feeding,  the  lack  of 
grit  and  to  loss  of  vigor  in  the  flock. 

Treatment. — A  well  balanced  ration,  not  too  much  bulky  food,  clean,  fresh 
water,  birds  kept  in  a  dry,  well  ventilated  house  and  compelled  to  take  plenty 
of  exercise,  will  ordinarily  put  back  into  condition  a  deranged  digestive  tract. 
Green  food  should  be  given  poultry  once  every  day  in  the  year.  *  It  invigorates 
the  liver,  sends  pure  blood  into  the  vital  organs  of  the  system,  and  will  keep 
them  in  better  condition  than  all  liver  tonics  combined. 

Inflammation  of  the  Egg  Passage. 

Inflammation  of  the  egg  passage  may  occur  in  connection  with  an  egg- 
bound  condition.  This  condition  is  usually  the  result  of  too  much  fat  and  is 
more  frequently  found  in  the  larger  breeds.  Inflammation  may  be  due  to  the 
use  of  some  of  the  egg-foods  advertised  to  increase  egg  production  and  which 
have  an  irritating  effect  if  used  too  long.  Many  of  these  cases  are  due  to  a 
retained  egg  that  might  be  removed.  The  eggs  are  large,  the  passage  is  fatty, 
an  egg  is  retained  and  inflammation  follows. 

Symptoms.— There  .is  a  constant  desire  to  strain.  The  violent  strain 
sometimes  ruptures  a  blood  vessel  and  causes  sudden  death.  The  feathers 
of  the  bird  are  ruffled  and  the  wings  droop  as  though  there  were  a  relaxing 
of  the  muscles.  The  vent  of  the  bird  is  hot,  red  and  in  motion.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  bird  drops  and  death  follows  from  the  extended  inflammation. 

Treatment. If  the  disease  proceeds  from  the  retained  and  perhaps  broken 

egg,  it  must  be  removed  at  once.  Oil  the  finger  and  carefully  insert  in  the 
passage.  If  the  broken  egg  is  within  reach,  it  can,  with  patience,  be  re- 
moved. If  too  far  away,  use  injections  of  olive  oil  repeatedly.  This  will  have 
a  soothing  effect  and  tend  to  remove  the  broken  or  retained  egg. 


342 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  343 

The  broken  egg  being  removed,  the  passage  should  be  syringed  with  warm 
oil  containing  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  and  20  to  30  grains  of  sulphate  of 
magnesia  administered  and  repeated  two  or  three  times. 

Influenza  or  Cold. 

Influenza,  or  grippe,  is  generally  applied  to  a  severe  cold  that  has  no 
symptoms  of  roup. 

Colds  mos1|  frequently  occur  in  wet  weather  and  among  poorly  housed 
fowls. 

Symptoms. — The  most  common  symptoms  are  a  "roupy  cold"  without  the 
"roupy  smell"  which  may  or  may  not  be  accompanied  by  a  watery  diarrhea. 
The  fowl  is  dumpish  and  feverish,  the  eyes  and  nostrils  are  watery  and  there 
is  much  sneezing;  no  patches  on  the  throat. 

Treatment. — Warm  housing  and  protection  from  cold  and  wet.  Give 
1  grain  quinine  to  an  adult  fowl.  It  is  well  to  isolate  the  birds  as  the  early 
stages  of  roup  are  sometimes  mistaken  for  a  simple  cold.  The  fowls  are  more 
liable  to  contract  roup  when  suffering  from  a  cold  and  on  this  account,  should 
be  isolated  and  examined  often. 

Use  equal  parts  of  hydrogen  peroxide  and  water  as  a  wash  for  mouth  and 
nostrils. 

Put  20  drops  of  camphor  in  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar,  and  dissolve  in  a 
pint  of  water.  Give  this  as  the  birds'  only  drink.  This  often  checks  the 
trouble  at  once. 

Red  pepper  given  with  the  food  is  recommended. 

Wash  the  eyes  and  nostrils  with  3  percent  boric  acid  in  water  or  equal 
parts  of  witch  hazel  and  water. 

Immerse  the  fowl's  head  in  a  strong  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash. 
This  is  an  excellent  remedy. 

Leg  Weakness. 

Leg  weakness  is  seldom  seen  except  in  a  flock  from  three  to  six  months 
old.  The  cockerels  are  more  apt  to  be  affected  than  the  pullets.  One  of  the 
causes  is  over  feeding  of  fat  producing  foods,  thus  producing  more  weight 
than  the  legs  can  properly  support.  The  larger  the  variety,  the  more  tendency 
there  is  to  leg  weakness  through  feeding.  Another  cause  for  leg  weakness  is 
the  feeding  of  too  little  bone  and  muscle-forming  foods.  Chicks  kept  on  board 
floors  too  long  and  not  given  soil  to  run  on  are  liable  to  leg  weakness. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  is  a  slight  weakness  of  the  legs  in  walk- 
ing. The  gait  is  unsteady  and  in  a  few  days  the  fowl  may  be  found  sitting 
while  eating  and  tries  to  avoid  walking.  During  the  first  few  days,  the  ap- 
petite is  not  affected  but  as  time  passes,  the  bird  is  slow  to  feed  and  fails  to 
get  its  share  of  grain.  It  is  driven  about  and  picked  at  by  the  other  fowls  and 
at  last  becomes  thin  and  louse  ridden. 

Treatment. — Reduce  the  quantity  of  fat  producing  foods  to  a  small 
amount.  Do  not  feed  corn  or  corn  meal.  Feed  only  three  times  daily.  If 
possible,  put  the  weak  birds  in  a  place  by  themselves.  Feed  steamed  cut 


344  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

clover  as  a  noon  meal  in  summer  or  winter.  As  in  all  cases,  clean  water  and 
houses  go  with  good  care.  Rub  the  legs  with  arnica  and  add  half  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  tincture  of  nux  vomica  to  each  quart  of  drinking  water.  Do  not  confuse 
leg  weakness  with  rheumatism.  In  the  latter  disease,  there  is  always  swollen 
joints.  A  good  bran  or  meat  meal  containing  at  least  one-fifth  bone  should 
be  made  part  of  the  morning  mash,  proportion :  One  part  meal  to  six  of  grain 
and  clover. 

A  good  food  is  to  give  bran,  wheat  and  oatmeal;  skirn  milk  instead 
of  water.  Cook  oatmeal  and  when  cool  add  30  drops  of  diluted  phosphoric 
acid  for  each  bird  affected  and  give  twice  daily.  Give  from  3  to  6  grains  citrate 
of  iron  each  day  as  a  tonic. 

One  teaspoonful  of  air-slaked  lime  daily  to  each  five  chickens  has  proven 
good. 

Lice. 

Lice  are  almost  always  present  in  small  numbers  and  may  become  a 
serious  pest  if  neglected. 

Symptoms. — The  fowl  shows  signs  of  irritation,  cannot  rest  and  looks 
unthrifty.  Sometimes  setting  hens  leave  their  nests  before  hatching  time,  and 
upon  examination  it  will  be  found  that  the  presence  of  lice  is  the  cause  of  it. 
They  will  be  found  largely  under  the  wings,  about  the  vent  and  on  the  head 
and  neck.  It  is  with  young  chicks  that  lice  work  the  worst  havoc.  They  are 
usually  found  under  the  throat  and  on  the  top  of  the  head. 

Treatment. — Lice  are  found  deep  among  the  feathers  and  any  treatment 
to  be,  successful  must  reach  them.  Dust  the  fowls  with  some  good  lice  killer. 
Persian  insect  powder,  or  powdered  sulphur  are  very  successful.  Use  a  box 
with  a  perforated  cover  and  dust  the  fowls  after  they  have  gone  to  roost. 
Hold  the  hen  firmly  by  the  legs,  head  downward,  and  sift  the  powder  through 
the  loosened  feathers.  Dust  at  least  three  times  about  a  week  apart.  Begin 
the  fight  early.  There  is  no  harm  in  giving  the  fowls  an  application  even  in 
midwinter.  As  they  are  seldom  entirely  free  from  lice  this  will  keep  them 
from  getting  a  start.  Dust  setting  hens  with  the  powder  before  putting  them 
on  the  nest. 

For  young  chicks  make  an  ointment  of  sulphur  and  lard,  rub  under  the 
throat  and  on  top  and  back  of  the  head. 

Rub  a  little  sweet  oil,  vaseline  or  lard  where  they  are. 

Road  dust  2  quarts,  and  tobacco  dust  1  pint,  or  well  sifted  hard  coal 
ashes  may  be  substituted  for  the  road  dust  and  Persian  insect  powder  or 
flowers  of  sulphur  may  be  used  in  place  of  tobacco  dust.  The  principal  thing 
is  to  have  the  ingredients  mixed  to  a  very  fine  dust. 

One  teaspoonful  of  sulphur  in  the  feed  for  20  chicks  or  a  tablespoonful  for 
20  adult  fowls  is  good.  A  large  quantity  will  not  hurt  them.  Repeat  every 
day  until  the  lice  are,  gone.  Some  say  not  to  feed  sulphur  in  wet  weather  but 
it  will  not  hurt  the  chickens. 

Put  a  few  drops  of  kerosene  (coal  oil)  on  hens'  wings  and  in  hovering 
the  chicks  they  will  get  sufficient  on  them  to  destroy  the  lice. 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  345 

Limber  Neck. 

Limber  neck  is  a  symptom  of  diseased  conditions  rather  than  a  distinct 
poultry  disease. 

The  condition  is  due  to  the  absorption  of  poison  which  acts  upon  the 
nervous  system  and  causes  paralysis.  It  is  generally  associated  with  indiges- 
tion or  worms.  It  is  very  similar  to  ptomaine  poisoning. 

Symptoms. — The  muscles  of  the  fowl's  neck  become  so  relaxed  they  can- 
not support  the  head,  and  the  fowl  stands  or  squats  with  the  head  resting  on 
the  ground. 

Treatment. — For  adult  fowls  give  from  one  to  two  teaspoonfuls  of  oil  of 
turpentine  mixed  with  the  same  amount  of  sweet  oil.  For  small  chicks  give 
a  mixture  of  from  two  to  ten  drops  of  each.  In  one-half  hour  mix  one  tea- 
spoonful  ginger  with  one-half  cup  hot,  sweet  milk  slightly  sweetened.  To 
adult  fowls  give  one  to  two  tablespoonfuls  every  hour  or  two  and  to  chicks 
one-half  to  one  teaspoonful. 

Fifty  to  60  grains  of  Epsom  salts  or  three  or  four  teaspoonfuls  of  castor 
oil  to  a  grown  fowl. 

Mix  equal  parts  of  lard,  ginger,  mustard  and  cayenne  pepper.  Form  into 
flat  pills  the  size  of  a  dime  and  give  one  of  these  every  three  hours  if  neces- 
sary. 

Mites. 

These  parasites  breed  in  the  cracks  or  joints  of,  poultry  houses,  or  any- 
where that  filth  is  allowed  to  accumulate.  They  suck  the  blood  and  are  dan- 
gerous to  the  health  of  fowls  of  all  ages. 

Treatment. — A  good  preparation  which  will  destroy  the  mites,  and  also 
lice,  is  made  by  shaving  one-half  pound  laundry  soap  into  one-half  gallon 
rainwater.  Boil  until  the  soap  is  dissolved,  remove  from  the  fire  and  stir  into 
it,  while  still  hot,  2  gallons  of  kerosene  oil.  This  also  makes  a  good  disin- 
fectant. When  it  is  to  be  used  for  killing  mites  or  lice  in  the  houses,  use  one 
part  of  this  mixture  to  10  parts  of  water.  When  used  as  disinfectant  add 
one  quart  of  the  mixture  to  10  quarts  of  water  and  stir  well;  then  add  one 
pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid  or  cresol  and  stir  again.  When  well  mixed  apply 
to  all  crevices  and  cracks,  and  spread  over  walls,  floors,  roosts  and  nest  boxes. 

The  free  use  of  kerosene  is  highly  recommended  in  fighting  mites.  Applv 
to  roosts,  nests  and  all  cracks  and  crevices.  The  walls  may  be  sprayed  with 
kerosene. 

Poultry  houses  should  be  whitewashed  frequently  to  kill  disease  germs 
as  well  as  insects  which  lodge  in  cracks  and  walls.  The  following  formula 
for  whitewash  will  adhere  to  walls  and  last  for  a  long  time,  either  inside  or 
outside:  Half  a  bushel  of  unslaked  lime  slaked  in  warm  water.  Keep 
covered  so  the  steam  will  not  escape.  Strain  the  liquid  through  a  fine  sieve. 
Add  a  peck  of  salt  previously  dissolved  in  water,  three  pounds  of  rice  which 
has  been  ground  and  boiled  to  a  thin  paste.  One-half  pound  of  Spanish  whit- 
ing and  a  pound  of  glue  which  has  been  melted  over  a  slow  heat,  and  5  gal- 
lons of  hot  water.  Stir  well  and  let  stand  covered  5  days.  Heat  before  ap- 


346 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


Roup 


Roupy  eye. 


Scabies. 


Cholera. 


scaly  leg. 


Mite    that    causes 
Scaly  leg. 


Ecru  bound. 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  347 

plying  to  walls.  If  properly  applied  one  pint  of  this  mixture  will  cover  one 
square  yard.  Coloring  may  be  added  to  make  any  shade.  It  will  retain 
its  brilliancy  for  years.  For  inside  of  poultry  houses,  add  2  pints  of  carbolic 
acid  for  disinfectant. 

Pip. 

Pip  is  sometimes  a  dry  condition  of  the  tongue  appearing  in  several 
diseases  of  the  air  passages,  such  as  catarrh,  bronchitis,  roup  and  pneumonia. 
It  is  a  symptom  of  disease,  not  a  disease  itself. 

Pip,  or  the  dry  condition  of  the  tongue,  is  produced  by  the  rapid  passing 
ovec  the  tongue  of  feverish  breath  combined  with  increased  temperature  of 
the  body. 

Symptoms. — The  end  of  the  tongue  becomes  hard  and  dry  and  eating 
becomes  difficult. 

Treatment. — Study  the  whole  bird,  finding  out  the  trouble  underlying 
this  one  symptom  and  treat  the  real  disease. 

Give  soft  food  for  a  day  or  two,  and  20  grains  of  Epsom  salts  for  two 
mornings.  Wash  the  mouth  with  water  containing  boric  acid.  Paint  the 
tongue  twice  a  day  with  glycerine  or  olive  oil. 

Rheumatism. 

This  is  a  disease  affecting  all  parts  but  is  more  noticeable  in  the  legs. 

The  causes  of  the  ailment  are  exposure  to  cold  and  dampness,  the  feeding 
of  too  much  animal  matter  and  not  enough  vegetable  matter.  There  is  some- 
times a  hereditary  tendency  to  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  rheumatism  and  leg  weakness  are  not  al- 
ways distinguishable.  One  of  the  first  symptoms  of  the  former  is  the  jerky 
walk  and  the  joints  become  swollen.  .  Inflammation  and  pain  in  the  joints  and 
muscles  cause  the  bird  to  sit  down  most  of  the  time.  Trying  to  straighten 
the  limbs  hurts  the  bird. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  also  suggests  the  line  to  follow  in  the  pre- 
vention of  the  disease.  The  birds  should  be  housed  in  dry,  sunny  quarters  and 
fed  an  abundance  of  green  vegetables  not  forgetting  clover  mash.  For  internal 
treatment  iodide  of  potassium  is  highly  recommended,  fifteen  grains  to  every 
quart  of  drinking  water.  Use  small  dishes  so  it  will  all  be  used  while  fairly 
fresh.  This  is  good  for  chicks  as  well  as  old  fowls. 

Rub  the  swollen  parts  with  extract  of  witch  hazel  two  or  three  times  each 
day.  Common  baking  soda,  1  level  teaspoonful  to  each  quart  of  drinking 
water,  has  given  good  results.  Give  20  grams  of  Epsom  salts  followed  the 
next  day  by  fifteen  grains  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  each  pint  of  drinking  water. 

Roup  or  Contagious  Catarrh. 

This  disease  in  poultry  closely  resembles  the  more  malignant  forms  of 
catarrh  or  influenza  in  man  and  is  very  contagious. 

It  is  caused  by  a  specific  germ  closely  related  to  the  germ  that  causes  white 


348  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

diarrhea  in  chicks  and  blackhead  in  turkeys.  It  is  encouraged  by  keeping 
fowls  in  badly  ventilated  houses,  keeping  too  many  in  one  room  and  allowing 
the  poultry  house  to  become  damp  and  the  droppings  to  accumulate  in  the  house. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  at  first  resemble  those  of  a  severe  cold  at- 
tended with  a  feverish  condition,  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  a  frothy 
substance  in  the  corners  of  the  eyes.  The  appetite  diminishes  and  the  fowl 
sits  with  head  drawn  in,  wings  drooping  and  having  the  general  appearance 
of  depression  and  illness. 

Treatment. — The  sick  fowls  should  be  removed  from  the  flock  to  a  warm, 
dry  and  well  ventilated  room.  The  affected  membranes  should  then  be  treated 
by  applying  antiseptic  and  healing  mixtures.  The  best  method  is  a  spraying 
apparatus  but  an  oil-can  or  even  a  medicine  dropper  can  be  used.  A  good 
remedy  for  this  treatment  is  boric  acid  1  ounce,  water  1  quart,  or  permanganate 
of  potash  1  dram,  water  1  quart,  or  peroxide  of  hydrogen  1  ounce,  water  3 
ounces.  Before  applying  these  remedies  it  is  well  to  wash  the  mouth  and  eyes 
with  a  solution  of  warm  water  containing  1  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  a  quart. 
Don't  forget  to  wash  the  hands  well  after  handling  sick  fowls. 

Preventive  Treatment. — If  the  disease  be  taken  in  hand  early,  or  as  a 
preventive  measure  it  can  frequently  be  stamped  out  by  using  a  creolin  spray. 
Mix  1  teaspoonful  of  pure  creolin  in  a  gallon  of  water.  With  a  small  spray 
pump  that  throws  a  very  fine  mist,  spray  this  solution  about  the  poultry  houses 
after  the  birds  have  gone  to  roost.  Spray  about  the  heads  of  the  birds  so  they 
may  inhale  the  vapor.  It  will  cause  a  great  deal  of  sneezing  and  coughing. 
This  treatment  every  night  for  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  will  cure  many  stubborn 
catarrhal  colds  and  often  cures  mild  cases  of  roup. 

Apply  a  2%  solution  of  carbolic  acid  to  the  affected  parts. 

Kerosene  mixed  with  an  equal  part  of  olive  oil  has  given  good  results. 

Cleanse  the  nostrils  and  throat  with  equal  parts  of  hydrogen  peroxide  and 
water  several  times  daily  and  grease  the  nostrils  with  vaseline. 

Make  small  pills  of  well  mixed  sulphur  and  camphorated  vaseline. 

A  tablespoonful  of  clear  lard,  half  a  tablespoonful  each  of  vinegar,  cayenne 
pepper  and  mustard;  mix  well  together  and  add  flour  until  the  whole  has  the 
consistency  of  dough;  roll  into  slugs  about  the  size  of  the  top  joint  of  the 
little  finger  and  put  one  down  the  patient's  throat.  Repeat  in  twelve  hours, 
if  necessary.  One  dose  often  cures  a  mild  attack. 

Spirits  of  turpentine,  one  part,  with  glycerine  six  parts,  makes  a  good 
lotion  for  bathing  the  face  and  eyes,  for  injecting  into  the  nostrils  and  for 
swabbing  the  throat  of  roupy  fowls. 

Make  a  20%  solution  of  common  baking  soda.  Bathe  the  head  and  inject 
into  the  cleft  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  Then  repeat  this  process  using  peroxide 
of  hydrogen  instead  of  baking  soda.  Then  inject  into  the  cleft  in  the  roof  of 
the  mouth  and  down  the  throat,  the  following  prescription:  Oil  of  thyme  1 
dram,  oil  of  eucalyptus  20  drops,  oil  of  petrol  2  ounces. 

Get  some  two-decimal  tablets  of  bin-iod  of  mercury,  and  for  adult  fowls 
give  two  tablets  night  and  morning.  In  the  drinking  water  use  permanganate 
of  potash.  Get  the  crystals  and  dissolve  them  in  a  bottle  of  water  and  then 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT  349 

put  enough  of  this  solution  in  the  drinking  water  to  make  the  water  quite 
purple.  Continue  this  latter  medicine  for  a  week  and  it  will  take  the  disease 
out  of  the  flock.  It  is  only  the  worst  cases  that  will  need  the  bin-iod  of 
mercury. 

Scaly  Leg. 

Scaly  leg  is  caused  by  a  parasite  and  is  decidedly  contagious.  This  para- 
site works  its  way  in  between  the  scales  of  shanks  or  toes.  It  may  come  from 
another  fowl  or  from  an  infected  house  or  brooder.  The  scales  are  irritated, 
pushed  apart  and  filth  begins  to  accumulate.  This  filth  together  with  the 
parasite  working  produces  a  disgusting  appearance  of  the  legs. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  enlargement  of  the  feet  and  legs.  At 
first  there  is  seen  only  a  slight  roughness  but  the  continued  irritation  of  the 
mite  causes  a  spongy  substance  which  raises  the  scales  until  they  are  nearly 
perpendicular.  In  severe  cases  the  joints  become  inflamed  and  the  birds  walk 
with  difficulty. 

Treatment. — Wash  and  brush  the  legs  with  warm  soapy  water,  removing 
all  scales  that  come  off  easily.  Dry  the  legs  and  apply  a  coating  of  balsam  of 
Peru  or  an  ointment  containing  two  percent  carbolic  acid. 

A  remedy  highly  recommended  is  oil  of  caraway  1  part  and  5  parts  of 
vaseline. 

When  a  large  number  of  fowls  are  to  be  treated,  make  a  mixture  of  one- 
half  pint  kerosene  and  one  pint  raw  linseed  oil  in  a  quart  can.  Take  this  to 
the  poultry  house  at  night  and  dip  both  legs  of  each  affected  bird  into  the  mix- 
ture and  replace  them  on  the  roost.  The  feathers -must  not  be  wet  as  this 
causes  the  skin  to  blister.  Repeat  this  in  three  days. 

A  good  ointment  to  kill  the  parasite  is  made  of  one  ounce  of  sulphur  and 
ten  tablespoonfuls  of  lard  or  vaseline.  Rub  this  into  the  rough  parts  every 
other  night  for  a  week  and  give  one  application  in  about  three  weeks. 

Another  good  method  is  to  fill  a  common  wooden  pail  nearly  full  of  water, 
adding  one  gill  of  kerosene  carefully  so  it  will  float  on  the  surface.  Take  each 
fowl  and  dip  both  legs  down  through  the  oil,  holding  for  half  a  minute.  Repeat 
this  in  four  or  five  days.  If  the  shanks  are  feathered,  care  should  be  taken 
to  dry  the  feathers  as  they  will  hold  the  oil,  producing  much  discomfort  by 
irritating  the  skin. 

Tuberculosis. 

This  disease  is  a  chronic,  contagious  disease.  Its  development  is  caused 
by  germs  called  tubercles  in  various  organs  of  the  body,  but  more  often  in 
the  liver,  spleen  and  intestines.  The  germ  differs  somewhat  from  the  germ 
which  causes  tuberculosis  in  man. 

If  tuberculosis  exists  in  a  neighboring  flock,  it  may  be  carried  by  birds 
or  animals  going  from  one  yard  to  another  or  from  fowls  purchased  from 
infected  flocks.  The  eggs  of  diseased  birds  often  contain  the  baccilli  and 
chickens  hatched  from  such  eggs  are  diseased  when  they  leave  the  shell  and 
ready  to  infect  the  poultry  with  which  they  run.  Pigs,  cats,  rats  etc.,  may 


350  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

be  infected  with  fowl  tuberculosis  from  eating  the  bodies  of  birds  which  have 
died  from  this  disease  and  these  animals  may  infect  other  fowls. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  begin  with  gradual  loss  of  weight,  wasting 
of  the  muscles  and  prominence  of  the  bones.  The  comb  becomes  pale.  The 
bird  is  weak  and  languid.  In  the  latter  stages,  there  is  persistent  diarrhea. 
Very  often  there  is  an  inflammation  of  the  joints  which  causes  enlargement 
and  lameness.  Occasionally  the  skin  over  the  joints  breaks  and  they  are  found 
to  be  ulcerated.  Many  of  the  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  very  similar  to 
those  occurring  with  other  diseases,  thus  making  a  diagnosis  difficult.  A  micro- 
scopic analysis  showing  the  presence  of  the  bacillus  is  the  best  evidence. 

Preventive  Treatment. — The  treatment  is  entirely  preventive  as  the. 
disease  cannot  be  cured.  All  birds  that  are  known  to  be  infected  should  be 
killed  and  burned.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  keep  any  of  the  fowls  that 
have  been  exposed  to  the  contagion.  All  of  the  manure  and  scrapings  of  the 
yards  should  be  burned.  Sprinkle  a  5%  solution  of  carbolic  acid  over  the  funs 
and  wash  floors  and  walls,  feeding  troughs  and  drinking  vessels  with  the  same. 
Then  whitewash  the  whole  interior  of  the  poultry  house  adding  16  ounces  of 
crude  carbolic  acid  to  each  pail  of  whitewash.  Keep  the  house  and  yards  open 
to  sun  for  three  weeks  before  putting  in  a  new  flock. 

Vertigo. 

This  is  a  disease  of  the  brain,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  minor  apoplexy. 

Symptoms. — The  bird  shows  dizziness.  The  gait  is  uncertain  and  stag- 
gering. 

Treatment. — The  fowl  can  often  be  revived  by  holding  the  head  under  a 
stream  of  cold  water  after  which  keep  it  in  a  cool  place  and  on  a  light  diet. 

White  Comb  (Favus). 

This  is  a  contagious  disease  quite  disfiguring  but  easily  controlled  if  treated 
early. 

White  comb  is  the  result  of  close  confinement,  little  or  no  air  and  sun- 
shine and  absence  of  sufficient  vegetable  food.  The  disease  is  transmitted  from 
fowl  to  fowl  by  contact. 

Symptoms. — Favus  begins  by  the  formation  of  white  or  grayish  spots  on 
the  comb  and  wattles.  These  spots  enlarge,  run  together  and  become  more 
inflamed  until  the  skin  of  the  head  and  neck  is  covered  and  bare  of  feathers. 
As  the  disease  advances,  the  skin  becomes  thicker  until  in  a  few  weeks  it  may 
change  very  much  the  shape  of  the  head.  There  will  be  noticed  a  paleness 
of  all  mucus  surfaces  and  a  weakness  in  all  the  movements  of  the  bird. 

While  the  disease  is  confined  to  the  head,  it  may  be  cured  by  applying  tinc- 
ture of  iodine  to  the  parts. 

An  ointment  of  calomel  1  part,  vaseline  8  parts,  well  mixed  and  applied 
daily,  is  an  efficient  remedy. 

Olive  oil  with  1%  carbolic  acid  is  good  to  apply.     Isolate  the  afflicted  fowls. 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT 


351 


352  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

White  Diarrhea  in  Chicks. 

There  are  various  causes  for  this  ailment.  A  common  one  is  wrong  feed- 
ing. Either  the  chick  is  fed  while  too  young,  the  food  given  is  too  heavy  to 
digest  or  is  fermented  or  spoiled.  Other  causes  are  chilling,  low  vitality  in  the 
breeding  stock,  careless  feeding,  too  little  or  too  much  heat,  impure  drinking 
water,  infected  food  and  unsanitary  surroundings. 

Symptoms. — Chickens  are  usually  attacked  when  10  to  15  days  old.  They 
appear  listless,  their  feathers  become  rough  and  they  stand  about  with  drooping 
wings.  White  diarrhea  is  soon  noticed.  The  chick  eats  less  and  less,  is 
thirsty,  and  shows  signs  of  general  weakness.  The  symptoms  increase  in  sever- 
ity and  the  chick  is  apt  to  be  found  dead. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  mostly  preventive.  If  the  hatching  is  done 
by  the  hen,  the  chicks  should  be  put  upon  fresh  ground,  and  any  chicks  which 
sicken  should  be  immediately  isolated  or  killed.  By  removing  frequently  to 
fresh  ground  or  by  frequent  disinfection,  the  disease  may  be  limited  to  a  few 
chicks.  If  hatched  in  the  incubator,  it  is  well  to  divide  the  trays  and  brooders 
by  light  partitions  so  that  the  chicks  will  not  be  in  one  lot.  If  white  diarrhea 
appears  in  any  lot,  such  lots  may  be  removed  and  the  places  disinfected.  After 
four  or  five  days,  the  healthy  lots  may  be  put  together.  In  this  way  the  greater 
part  of  the  chicks  are  protected  against  a  most  common  form  of  the  disease. 
Begin  feeding  at  from  24  to  36  hours  of  age  and  feed  according  to  the  formulas 
given  for. dry  bran,  rolled  oats  and  hard  boiled  eggs.  Give  neither  cracked 
wheat  nor  cracked  corn  until  chicks  are  a  week  or  10  days  old.  Be  sure  they 
have  an  opportunity  to  be  comfortably  warm  at  all  times. 

Give  small  doses  of  castor  oil. 

A  few  drops  of  turpentine  in  a  little  olive  oil  is  good  for  white  diarrhea. 

Worms. 

These  worms  are  commonly  parasitic  on  fowls. 

Symptoms. — Worms  are  frequently  present  in  the  digestive  canal  of 
fowls,  particularly  young  chicks.  Occasionally  flat  tape  worms  are  found  but 
these  are  not  common.  Chicks  infected  with  worms  go  off  feed  and  become 
thin  and  sickly.  The  symptoms  are  really  those  of  indigestion. 

Treatment. — If  you  suspect  worms,  try  to  remove  them.  Powdered  areca 
nut  20  to  40  grains  per  fowl,  administered  in  mash  or  mixed  with  butter  or 
lard  into  pills  is  an  effective  remedy. 

Beat  a  new  laid  egg  with  one  tablespoonful  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  mix 
thoroughly.  Give  a  teaspoonful  of  this  mixture  night  and  morning  for  a  few 
days. 

Divide  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  areca-nut  powder  into  four  parts  and  give 
one  part  every  morning,  follow  this  with  a  dessert  spoonful  of  sweet  oil  two 
hours  after  each  powder. 


DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS-TREATMENT  353 


Liver 


Internal  organs  of  a  chicken,  removed   (post-mortem  examination). 


354 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


POST-MORTEM  EXAMINATIONS. 

When  the  poultry  die  off  from  an  unknown  cause,  post-mortem  examina- 
tions should  be  undertaken  at  once.  By  this  means,  alone,  can  the  raiser  ascer- 
tain with  certainty  what  the  trouble  is  and  remedy  it.  It  will  show  him  what 
disease  he  has  to  fight  and  will  enable  him  to  doctor  his  fowls  with  greater 
success. 

It  is  better  to  pluck  a  bird  before  performing  an  examination  and  to  ex- 
amine him  in  a  systematic  way.  However,  a  speedy  examination  may  be  made 
without  plucking,  by  hurriedly  bending  back  or  removing  the  breast-bone. 
To  handle  the  body  easily  it  should  be  nailed,  breast  upward,  to  a  board.  Then 
the  performer  can  easily  get  inside  the  bird  by  cutting  along  each  side  of  the 
breast  and  bending  back  the  breast-bone. 

An  examination  of  the  afflicted  organs  can  next  be  made  and  the  disease 
determined  by  observing  what  the  various  symptoms  indicate  that  are  given 
below.  The  operator  should  notice  whether  the  organs  diseased  are  spotted, 
enlarged,  inflamed,  ruptured  or  gorged  with  blood.  No  single  organ  will  give 
conclusive  evidence  unless  the  symptoms  are  very  pronounced,  but  the  appear- 
ance of  all  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Following  are  the  main  symptoms 
found  in  each  organ  and  what  they  indicate.  For  names  of  organs  see  illus- 
trations. 


Organ. 

Symptoms. 

Indications. 

Brain  

Gorged  with  blood 

' 

Different  sized  yellowish-white  spots, 
raised  and  convex,  that  can  be  easily 
separated  from  the  organ;    often 
the  organ  itself  is  greatly  enlarged. 

Tuberculosis. 

Liver  

Enlarged  organ,  soft  and  dark  shade 
of  green,  many  times  shows  whitish 
spots. 

Cholera. 

Round  patches,  sunken  in  center  asso- 
ciated   with    each    caecum    being 
clogged  and  sores  on  its  lining. 

Coccidial  Diarrhea. 

Organ  swollen  and  congested,  can  be 
easily  torn. 

Congested  Liver. 

Organ  overloaded  with  fat. 

Fatty  Liver. 

Organ  small  and  hard. 

Fatty  Degeneration. 

Minute,  chalky  crystals  on  liver  and 
other  organs. 

Gout. 

Dead  parts  covered  with  mold. 

Aspergillosis. 

Heart  

p  •   ,    ,  ,           , 

„,    i 

Stomach  

T  '    '        •    fl          J        J       J  J         J 

„, 

Caecum  

Coccidial  Diarrhea  in 

Blackhead  in  turkeys. 

DISEASES  OF  CHICKENS— TREATMENT 


355 


Organ  . 

Symptoms. 

Apoplexy  . 

Upper  portion  reddened.     Contents 
streaked  with  blood. 

Cholera. 

Intestines  

.  .       . 

Lining  inflamed. 

Diarrhea. 

Presence  of  worms. 

Worms. 

Thick  excretion  of  mucus    in    bron- 
chial tubes. 

Pneumonia. 

Blood  from  lungs  in  tubes. 

Congestion  of  lungs. 

Windpipe  

Red  worms,  about  %-inch  long,  cling- 

Gapes. 

ing  to  trachea. 

Whitish  mold  inside. 

Aspergillosis. 

Dark  and  congested  with  blood. 

Congestion. 

Spots  present  (in  lungs  of  little  chicks). 

Brooder  Pneumonia. 

Organ  is  not  spongy,  air  sacs  Are  filled 
with  a  rather  solid  substance. 

Pneumonia. 

Spleen  

Much  enlarged. 

Tuberculosis. 

Blood  vessels  swollen  with  blood. 

Cholera. 

Mesentery  

Covered  with  little  lumps. 

Tuberculosis. 

TURKEYS. 

Opportunity  for  Profit. — When  turkeys  are  properly  handled,  that  is, 
when  the  unnatural  losses  are  eliminated,  there  is  a  greater  opportunity  for 
profit  in  raising  them  than  in  any  other  kind  of  live  stock.  These  unnatural 
losses  are  due  largely  to  the  neglect  of  raisers  to  follow  the  laws  of  nature  in 
selecting  and  paring  the  breeding  stock.  Turkeys  are  more  self  supporting 
than  any  other  live  stock.  From  the  time  that  they  are  six  weeks  old  until 
winter  sets  in  they  will  gain  the  greater  part  of  their  entire  living  from  insects, 
bugs,  grasshoppers,  and  waste  grain  that  they  pick  up  in  their  free  wanderings 
over  the  range.  In  other  words,  when  given  sufficient  range,  they  may  be  called 
self-sustaining  foragers.  The  chance  for  profit  in  turkey  raising  moreover  is 
gradually  increasing  due  to  the  more  general  use  of  the  flesh.  Turkeys  are 
used  not  only  for  roasting  but  a  large  number  of  the  poults  (young  turkeys) 
are  used  for  broilers.  The  flesh  is  also  used  to  an  increasing  extent  for  salads, 
sandwiches  and  cold  cuts.  If  the  late  hatched  poults  cannot  be  brought  to 
maturity,  they  will  sell  for  broilers  at  a  good  profit.  The  broiled  poult  is  a  very 
valuable  dish  in  our  large  cities  at  the  present  time. 

STANDARD  WEIGHTS  OF  TURKEYS. 


Adult  Cock 
(2  years  old 
or  over). 

Yearling 
(1  year  old 
and  less 
than  2). 

Cockerel 
(less  than 
1  year  old). 

Hen 
(1  year  old 
or  over). 

Pullet 
(less  than 
1  year  old). 

Bronze  

Pounds. 
36 

Pounds. 
33 

Pounds. 
25 

Pounds. 
20 

Pounds. 
16 

Bourbon  Red  

30 

25 

20 

18 

12 

Narragansett  

30 

25 

20 

18 

12 

White  Holland  

28 

24 

20 

18 

14 

Black  

27 

22 

18 

18 

12 

Slate  

27 

22 

18 

18 

12 

The  main  difference  in  the  varieties  given  are  size  and  color.  The  Bronze 
and  the  Narragansett  are  the  largest,  the  Bourbon  Reds  and  Slate  are  the  medium 
and  the  Black  and  White  the  smallest.  A  great  improvement  has  been  made 
in  the  Blacks  and  Whites  of  late  years,  so  much  so  in  fact  that  they  are  crowd- 
ing for  third  position. 

There  is  a  nonstandard  variety  besides  the  above,  known  as  the  Buffs. 
They  are  quite  like  the  Bourbon  Reds  and  might  well  claim  their  place.  The 
Bourbon  Reds  are  more  largely  grown  for  the  market  than  the  Buffs. 

Selection  of  a  Breed. — The  Bronze  turkeys  are  the  most  popular  in  this 
country,  although  considerable  numbers  of  white  turkeys  are  bred.  Scarcely 
any  preference  is  shown  on  the  open  market  for  any  particular  breed  of  turkey, 
but  great  stress  is  always  laid  upon  the  quality.  The  best  grown  and  best  fin- 

356 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  357 

ished  specimens  of  all  varieties  are  always  in  demand.  So  we  see  it  is  not  so 
much  the  breed  that  counts  as  it  is  the  quality.  One  must  only  know  how  to 
take  care  of  the  birds  to  make  a  success  of  turkey  raising. 

Bronze  Turkey. — This  variety  runs  more  to  size  than  any  of  the  others, 
perhaps  too  much  so.  Size  within  reasonable  limits  is  desired  and  encouraged, 
but  when  it  consists  in  a  gain  in  length  of  thigh  and  shank,  it  is  an  increase  of 
weight  with  but  little  value.  The  Bronze  turkey  is  naturally  the  largest  in  size, 
the  most  vigorous  in  constitution,  and  the  most  profitable  to  grow.  However, 
through  carelessness  in  breeding  they  often  lack  their  natural  characteristics. 

Narragansett. — For  all  purposes  this  variety  holds  its  own  with  any  of 
the  rest,  and  should  be  more  generally  cultivated  for  market  purposes.  The 
turkeys  of  this  variety  have  fine  form  in  breast  and  body,  shorter  legs  than  the 
Bronze  as  well  as  a  more  contented  nature.  They  average  smaller  but  some 
declare  that  they  can  be  made  to  mature  faster  and  reach  market  size  quicker 
than  the  Bronze.  These  birds  are  highly  valued  by  those  who  grow  them. 

Slate. — These  turkeys  are  about  the  size  of  the  Blacks  and  Buffs  as  a  rule. 
Some  value  them  highly  but  they  have  not  been  bred  extensively  enough  to 
determine  their  market  value. 

White. — This  is  another  fine  variety  for  all  purposes.  They  grow  to  the 
most  profitable  sizes  and  dress  well  for  market.  With  them,  as  with  other 
white  poultry,  the  pin  feathers  do  not  show  as  much  as  in  the  darker  varieties, 
and  their  pinkish  white  shanks  add  to  their  appearance.  White  turkeys  are 
largely  grown  in  some  localities.  They  are  no  harder  to  rear  and  have  as  much 
vitality  as  the  other  varieties.  Also  the  Whites  are  more  contented  to  stay  at 
home  than  some  of  the  others,  so  they  are  suited  to  farms  with  limited  range. 

Black. — These  turkeys  are  fine  for  table  purposes.  When  dressed  they 
present  a  most  desirable  plumpness  and  finish.  The  Blacks  are  quite  hardy. 
They  round  up  nicely  at  an  early  age  and  mature  for  the  early  markets.  Like 
the  Whites,  the  Blacks  are  quite  contented  at  home  which  makes  them  a  desir- 
able bird  for  the  farmer  who  wishes  to  keep  them  on  a  limited  area. 

Bourbon  Red. — This  is  a  good,  all  around  variety  and  some  think  the 
rich  color  of  flesh  and  skin  excels  the  others.  The  birds  grow  large,  vigorous 
and  strong  with  a  splendid  fullness  of  breast. 

Buff. — This  variety  is  scarce.  They  are  very  attractive  when  dressed  and 
grow  quickly.  The  average  weight  of  the  birds  is  several  pounds  less  than 
that  of  the  Narragansetts.  Some  growers  in  the  East  are  paying  more  attention 
to  this  variety  in  order  to  determine  their  value. 

HOUSING. 

As  a  rule  little  housing  is  done  for  turkeys  except  in  very  cold  climates. 
They  need  the  open  air.  However  it  is  always  advisable  to  give  them  some  kind 
of  shelter  to  protect  them  from  the  direct  blast  of  the  cold  wintry  winds.  Where 
shelter  is  necessary  a  coop  may  be  .built  patterned  after  poultry  houses  with  the 
slanting  roofs.  An  open  ventilator  should  be  built  in  front,  close  to  the  roof, 
and  this  should  never  be  closed,  except  in  cold  weather.  Just  enough  light  is 


358 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  359 

necessary  to  show  the  turkeys  the  way  to  and  from  the  roosts.  The  roosts 
are  built  on  a  level  in  the  front  of  the  house,  with  a  rolling  or  sliding  door  in 
the  rear.  Turkeys  should  not  be  confined  so  the  door  should  be  left  open  all 
day  that  they  may  come  and  go  as  they  wish.  In  cold,  snowy  weather  they  may 
be  fed  in  the  house. 

Good  House  for  Cold  Climates. — A  good  house  for  the  cold  climate  of 
Canada  is  the  double  inclosed  apartment  house.  This  is  used  for  breeding  stock 
in  winter.  Connected  with  the  house  is  an  inclosed  run  to  protect  the  birds  from 
the  cold  and  at  the  same  time  furnish  opportunity  for  fresh  air  exercise  during 
the  day.  It  will  keep  the  turkeys  from  being  carried  away  by  all  kinds  of  mid- 
night marauders.  Such  a  house  is  easy  to  build  and  inexpensive. 

Coop  for  Poults. — The  following  makes  a  splendid  roosting  coop  for 
poults  in  mild  climates.  It  keeps  out  incursions  of  night  animals.  The  frame 
should  be  6  ft.  long,  4  ft.  wide,  5  ft.  high  in  front  and  4  ft.  high  in  rear,  back 
and  roof  boarded,  ends  and  sides  enclosed  with  small  mesh  poultry  netting.  Put 
in  low  perches  and  keep  brood  until  they  are  ready  to  fly  up  out  of  danger. 
Move  this  coop  to  fresh  ground  frequently,  thus  keeping  the  ground  pure. 

Do  Not  House  With  Chickens. — Turkeys  will  not  do  well  if  housed  with 
chickens.  They  easily  become  infested  with  lice  from  them  and  lice  are  sure 
death  to  young  poults. 

BREEDING. 

(Including  Valuable  Information  on  the  Care  of  Breeding  Stock  and 

Hatching.) 

Selection  of  Breeding  Stock. — "Like  Begets  Like"  is  a  good  rule  to  follow 
in  breeding  turkeys.  The  careless  selection,  or  »no  selection  at  all,  of  breeding 
stock  has  given  no  end  of  trouble  to  turkey  raisers.  In  many  localities  all  of  the 
turkeys  raised  have  descended  from  the  same  original  pair,  no  new  blood  having 
come  into  the  neighborhood.  Such  a  foolish  procedure  means  the  destruction  of 
the  constitutional  vigor  of  the  birds  and  failure  is  sure  to  follow.  A  wise  farmer 
always  selects  the  best  corn  or  grain  he  has  for  seed ;  he  should  exercise  as  much 
care  in  the  selection  of  his  breeding  stock  in  turkeys.  In  fact  if  a  person  wishes 
to  succeed  in  this  profitable  industry,  he  must  give  much  care  to  the  breeding  of 
his  birds. 

Kinds  of  Hens  to  Select. — The  hens  to  be  used  for  breeding  should  be 
strong,  healthy  and  well  matured.  They  should  be  of  medium  size,  well  formed, 
strong  boned,  and  possess  constitutional  vigor.  Exceedingly  large  hens  as  well 
as  very  small  ones  are  seldom  the  best  of  breeders.  Vigor  and  stamina  are  ab- 
solutely necessary.  The  best  producers  are  turkey  hens  in  their  2nd  or  3rd 
year  of  laying.  The  best  young  hens  should  be  kept  with  this  in  mind. 

Kind  of  Males  to  Select— It  is  of  first  importance  to  have  a  first  class 
male  serve  as  breeder.  This,  can  easily  be  seen  when  we  say  that  the  male  is 
one-half  of  the  entire  flock  in  the  matter  of  breeding.  None  can  be  too  good. 
The  male  should  be  of  long  body ;  he  should  have  a  full,  round  breast  and  plenty 
of  bone  and  should  not  be  oversized. 

The  male  should  be  of  some  standard  variety,  no  matter  whether  the  hens 


360  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

are  or  not,  for  he  will  carry  with  him  the  influence  of  his  breeding.  If  the  hens 
are  of  a  standard  breed,  the  male  should  be  of  the  same  breed  so  as  to  keep  the 
stock  in  its  purity.  Much  better  results  are  obtained  by  selecting  individuals 
of  some  one  of  the  standard  varieties  than  by  cross-breeding.  Where  turkeys 
are  cross-bred,  it  tends  to  bring  the  weak  points  of  both  sides  of  the  cross  to  the 
surface.  Proper  crosses  sometimes  improve  the  first  issue  but  are  seldom  suc- 
cessful when  followed  up. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  female  influences  the  size  of  the  off- 
spring. Fair  sized  females  of  good  health,  constitutional  vigor  and  mature  age 
with  a  medium-sized  male  will  do  far  better  than  small  females  with  an  exceed- 
ingly large  male.  Pairing  small  weakly  females  with  large  males  is  poor  policy. 

In-breeding. — Turkey  hens  will  wander  miles  if  necessary  to  pair  with  a 
male  and  this  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  in-breeding.  In  localities  where 
few  turkeys  are  raised,  one  male  is  often  depended  upon  to  serve  for  all  the 
females.  This  too  often  forces  him  to  pair  with  his  own  descendants,  and 
causes  a  lack  of  vitality  in  the  offspring.  Turkeys  suffer  from  in-breeding  more 
than  any  other  of  our  domestic  fowls. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  SELECTING  BREEDING  STOCK. 

1.  Turkeys  Demand  New  Blood. — Do  not  in-breed.    It  is  better  to  send 
away  for  a  new  male  than  to  risk  close  breeding.     Turkeys  must  have  new  blood 
if  they  maintain  their  constitutional  vigor. 

2.  Secure  Tom  in  Fall. — The  male  should  be  secured  in  the  fall  that  one 
may  be  sure  of  his  vigor  and  health  in  general  before  the  breeding  season. 

3.  Kind  of  Tom  to  Use. — Do  not  think  that  a  large  overgrown  male  is 
as  good  for  this  purpose  as  a  well-proportioned,  medium  sized  one  that  is  full 
of  health,  strength  and  constitutional  vigor;  one  that  has  a  broad  masculine 
head,  heavy  ear  carunculations  and  wattles,  long  stout  shanks,  large  feet,  and  up- 
right carriage,  as  these  indicate  health  and  vigor. 

4.  Age  of  Hens. — The  turkey  hens  used  as  breeders  should  always  be 
over  one  year  old.     If  she  continues  to  lay  she  will  be  useful  until  about  eight 
years  of  age. 

5.  Kinds  of  Hens  to  Breed. — Use  medium-sized  hens.  Avoid  the  smaller 
ones  and  those  unnaturally  large.     Use  only  those  that  are  healthy,  strong  and 
vigorous.     Size,  with  large  feet  and  legs,  broad  heads,  and  good  length  of  body 
and  constitutional  vigor  are  influenced  largely  by  the  female;  color  and  finish 
by  the  male. 

6.  Indication  of  Value. — Value   is   indicated   most    clearly  by   a   full- 
rounded  breast  and  body. 

7.  Length  of  Thigh  and  Shank  vs.  Size. — Do  not  mistake  length  of  thigh 
and  shank,  if  out  of  proportion,  for  size. 

8.  Profitable  Market  Characteristics. — The  most  profitable  market  char- 
acteristics are  constitutional  vigor,  compactness  of  form,  and  length  of  breast  and 
body.     Select  birds  having  these  characteristics  for  breeding  purposes. 

Number  of  Females  to  Male. — In  farm  flocks  that  are  running  free  on  the 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  361 

range,  it  is  best  to  have  not  more  than  six  females  to  one  male.  When  the  turkeys 
are  yarded  in  flocks  of  eight  to  twelve,  it  is  better  to  use  two  males.  When  this 
is  done  allow  only  one  male  with  the  hens  at  a  time.  Change  the  males  at  least 
twice  a  week. 

Care  of  Breeding  Stock. 

Range. — The  flock  should  have  free  range  or  a  large  inclosure  after  they 
have  been  mated.  Without  plenty  of  range,  turkey  raising  is  seldom  satisfactory 
or  profitable.  Turkeys  are  by  nature  wild  birds  and  wild  or  semi-wild  habits 
are  necessary  to  their  best  welfare.  Some  flocks  have  done  well  on  8  to  20  acres 
but  only  a  few  can  be  grown  at  a  time  in  this  way,  and  they  require  close  atten- 
tion and  excellent  care.  A  wide  range  of  territory  for  them  to  go  over  undis- 
turbed is  of  vital  importance.  If  allowed  free  range  they  will  pick  up  the  kind 
of  foods  suitable  to  their  needs  and  liking,  besides  getting  plenty  of  needed  ex- 
ercise. 

Roosting  Places. — Turkeys  do  the  best  when  allowed  to  roost  in  the 
open.  They  enjoy  roosting  in  the  trees  or  upon  poles  hung  in  the  lee  of  some 
building.  A  good  roosting  place  can  be  made  by  planting  posts  that  project 
about  7  feet  above  the  ground  and  placing  upon  these  long  poles  about  2  inches 
in  diameter.  Turkeys  will  roost  the  year  around  in  such  places  and  fare  ex- 
ceedingly well  unless,  of  course,  the  weather  should  be  extremely  severe.  If 
housed  at  all  their  quarters  should  be  roomy,  perfectly  clean  and  well  ven- 
tilated, and  they  should  be  permitted  to  come  and  go  at  will  during  the  day. 
Any  house  will'  do,  that  will  protect  them  from  marauders  of  every  kind  and 
from  the  weather. 

Condition  of  Stock  and  Feeding. — The  breeding  stock  should  never  be 
allowed  to  become  too  fat.  A  turkey  that  is  once  fat  seldom,  if  ever,  regains  its 
former  vigor.  Access  to  granaries  and  barns  often  produce  an  overfat  condition. 
If  they  have  a  tendency  to  become  overfat  feed  them  boiled  oats.  Some  corn  and 
wheat  may  also  be  fed  to  advantage.  Although  we  say  they  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  become  fat,  we  do  not  mean  they  can  go  without  feed  entirely.  Do  not 
make  them  go  underfed.  If  the  birds  have  access  to  the  whole  farm  there  is 
slight  danger  of  their  going  hungry,  especially  if  any  stock  is  fed  on  the  place. 
When  they  are  unable  to  find  feed  it  should  be  supplied  them.  When  oats,  bar- 
ley, corn  or  wheat  are  fed  it  should  be  scattered  on  the  ground  so  that  they  will 
have  to  pick  up  the  grains,  kernel  by  kernel.  Avoid  feeding  much  corn  as  it 
tends  to  produce  too  much  fat  resulting  in  infertile  eggs.  The  breeding  stock 
need  vegetable  food,  grit,  charcoal  and  some  meat  food.  They  will  eat  lots  of 
charcoal  and  it  is  fine  to  keep  them  in  condition. 

The  Tom  should  be  well  fed.  He  is  generally  underfed  when  fed  with 
the  flock.  It  is  well  to  give  him  an  extra  ration  of  corn  every  day. 

Laying. — A  properly  managed  hen  turkey  generally  means  one  that  is 
allowed  to  run  her  own  affairs.  Such  a  bird  begins  laying  from  the  middle  of 
March  to  the  first  of  April  depending  upon  the  latitude  and  the  season.  She  will 
lay  about  3  clutches  in  a  season,  about  30  eggs  in  all,  if  a  good  layer.  When 
she  becomes  broody  she  can  be  broken  up  by  simply  destroying  her  nest  and 


362 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


rotation    For    a    Turkey    Nes 


to  Prevent  Turkey   Hens   From 


Firing  Over  Fence 


A  Typical  Torkey  R«o»t 


Packed    Ready    for   Shipment 


Co«p    U«ed    For   Turkey    Hets    While    Sitting 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  363 

putting  her  to  laying  again.  Those  who  only  have  a  few  hens  and  wish  to 
raise  a  great  many  poults  should  keep  the  turkey  hen  laying  and  rear  the  poults 
with  domestic  hens. 

Pairing. — It  is  best  not  to  allow  more  than  one  male  turkey  at  a  time  to 
run  with  a  flock  of  breeding  hens  as  extra  males  only  disturb  each  other  when 
pairing.  The  pairing  with  the  male  should  be  complete.  If  it  is  not,  the  whole 
clutch  of  eggs  will  be  infertile.  Immediately  upon  pairing  with  the  male  the 
hen  sets  out  to  find  a  nest  in  which  to  lay  her  eggs.  If  the  eggs  are  infertile 
her  work  is  all  for  nothing.  This  shows  the  importance  of  having  the  male  full 
of  vigor  at  pairing  time. 

Care  of  Eggs. — One  should  watch  the  hen-turkey  very  closely  to  see  when 
she  lays  her  eggs.  The  eggs  should  be  gathered  regularly  and  carefully.  They 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  and  turned  daily.  If  the  eggs  are  left  out  in 
changeable  weather  they  may  lose  their  vitality.  When  the  eggs  are  taken  from 
the  nest,  eggs  of  some  other  kind,  preferably  large-sized  china  eggs,  should  be 
placed  under  the  hen  to  keep  her  from  becoming  dissatisfied  and  changing  her 
nesting  place. 

Turkey  Nests. 

If  a  turkey-hen  is  not  watched  she  will  naturally  find  a  nest  in  the  most  out- 
of-the-way  place  she  can  find,  such  as  under  a  pile  of  logs  or  wood,  or  in  a  heap 
of  brush.  Here  she  will  lay  her  eggs  and  in  case  they  are  neither  chilled  nor 
carried  away  by  wild  animals,  she  will  hatch  them  into  vigorous  poults  herself. 
She  will  then  take  them  into  the  fields  as  far  away  from  the  accustomed  paths 
of  man  as  possible  and  here  she  will  feed  and  rear  her  brood  after  her  own  in- 
clination. When  autumn  comes  she  will  come  forth  with  a  flock  of  large,  vig- 
orous, young  turkeys.  They  will  be  robust  in  development,  vigorous  in  health, 
and  bright  in  plumage.  Some  of  the  largest  turkey  raisers  in  the  country  desire 
their  hens  to  seek  their  nests  and  rear  their  young  in  the  above  fashion.  This  is 
the  ideal  way  where  there  is  plenty  of  range  and  the  farm  is  so  situated  that  the 
hens  can  be  given  their  freedom  without  danger  to  the  eggs  and  brood.  On 
small  range  the  hiding  of  nests  should  be  carefully  guarded  against. 

To  Prevent  Wandering. — Watch  the  hen  closely  to  determine  her  nesting 
place.  If  she  selects  a  place  that  is  not  protected,  it  is  well  to  provide  a  coop  or 
box,  with  an  opening  for  her  to  go  in  and  out,  to  protect  her  eggs  from  the 
weather  during  the  four  weeks  of  incubation  in  case  she  is  going  to  hatch 
them  herself.  Just  before  time  for  the  eggs  to  hatch  a  slat  frame  can  be  placed 
over  the  hen  to  keep  her  from  wandering  off  with  the  newly  hatched  poults. 
Instead  of  the  frame  it  might  be  all  right  to  simply  nail  a  couple  of  slats  across 
the  opening  of  her  coop.  This  plan  will  increase  the  size  of  flocks  as  the 
young  poults  can  be  watched  and  given  better  care. 

Preparing  Nests. — Nests  should  be  secreted  in  the  places  that  the  hens 
would  be  most  likely  to  pick  for  themselves — such  as  thick  brush  or  a  secluded 
fence  corner.  The  places  are  easy  to  locate  after  the  first  season  because  hen 
turkeys  almost  invariably  select  a  place  to  lay  near  their  previous  season's  nest. 
An  empty  barrel  is  a  fine  thing  to  use  for  the  purpose.  Holes  should  be  made  in 


364  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

the  lower  side  to  let  out  water  which  might  accumulate.  The  barrel  is  placed 
on  its  side  and  the  nest  within  made  of  clean  straw  or  hay.  If  the  hen  avoids  her 
nest,  she  should  be  fed  close  in  front  of  it.  If  she  still  refuses  to  use  it,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  enclose  her  until  she  is  content  to  lay  where  requested. 

To  Prevent  Hiding  of  Nests. — If  the  grower  wishes  to  keep  the  hens  from 
hiding  their  nests'  and  to  save  all  the  eggs  laid,  it  may  be  necessary  to  confine 
them.  By  doing  this  he  can  teach  them  to  lay  and  sit  in  his  prepared  nests.  If 
the  hens  are  confined  they  should  be  let  out  each  day  after  they  have  laid  until 
roosting  time  when  they  can  be  put  back  into  the  inclosure.  Turkey  hens  will 
lay  about  twenty  eggs  before  becoming  broody  and  then  if  broken  up  will  lay 
again.  They  can  be  set  on  their  second  clutch  of  eggs,  if  the  eggs  are  to  be 
hatched  out  by  the  hen  turkey  herself.  They  are  usually  hatched  under  domestic 
hens. 

Keep  Nests  Separated. — In  a  large  flock  of  turkeys  it  is  often  the  case 
that  two  or  more  hens  will  try  to  nest  close  to  each  other  or  even  together.  If 
this  is  allowed,  trouble  is  certain  to  follow  unless  they  become  broody  at  the 
same  time  and  this  seldom  happens.  Two  hens  sitting  on  the  same  nest  will  get 
along  fairly  well  until  about  the  fourth  week  when  they  will  begin  fussing  for 
possession  of  the  eggs.  This  generally  results  in  the  destruction  of  most  of  them. 

Keeping  Record  of  Nests. — Keeping  a  record  of  each  nest  is  very  essen- 
tial. A  record  is  easily  kept  and  is  useful  for  reference.  It  should  show  when 
the  hen  began  to  lay,  the  number  of  eggs  laid,  when  she  became  broody,  when 
the  eggs  hatched,  etc. 

Hatching. 

Hatching  by  Turkey  Hens. — Turkey  hens  are  rather  good  mothers.  They 
produce  such  a  limited  number  of  eggs  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  hatch  them 
in  an  incubator.  Turkey  hens  are  practically  a  necessity  for  the  -successful 
rearing  of  poults  so  they  should  be  permitted  to  hatch  out  a  few  of  their  eggs 
at  least.  This  will  induce  them  to  brood  the  poults. 

Hatching  by  Domestic  Hens. — If  a  breeder  has  only  a  few  turkey  hens 
and  wishes  to  hatch  out  a  large  number  of  poults,  he  should  keep  the  turkey 
hens  laying  and  hatch  her  eggs  under  large  domestic  hens.  When  the  turkey 
hen  has  laid  from  fifteen  to  twenty-three  eggs  she  will  want  to  sit  but  she  can 
be  easily  broken  up  by  shutting  her  in  for  a  few  days.  After  she  is  given  her 
liberty  she  will  soon  begin  laying  again.  The  turkey  hen  can  be  allowed  to  sit 
on  some  of  her  second  clutch  of  eggs;  in  this  way  many  more  poults  can  be 
hatched  than  by  allowing  the  turkey  hen  to  sit  on  her  first  clutch. 

Hatching  with  Incubators. — Turkey  eggs  can  be  hatched  in  incubators 
about  as  well  as  any  others  but  we  believe  that  the  hens  themselves  will  pro- 
duce the  biggest  hatch.  They  will  hatch  out  more  of  the  weak  germed  eggs. 
Unless  an  exceedingly  large  number  of  poults  are  to  be  hatched  the  other  methods 
will  probably  be,  the  most  profitable.  It  is  the  prevailing  custom  to  hatch  turkey 
eggs  under  hens,  as  most  people  have  more  confidence  in  that  method. 

Time  Required  for  Incubation. — The  period  of  incubation  for  turkey  eggs 
is  about  four  weeks, — 27  to  29  days.  The  eggs  tliat  are  fresh  when  they  are 
put  under  the  hen  will  hatch  before  those  that  have  been  kept  for  some  time. 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  365 

Number  of  Eggs  for  a  Sitting.— If  the  pairing  of  the  hen  with  the  torn 
is  complete  and  the  torn  is  in  good  condition,  practically  every  egg  laid  by  the 
hen  will  be  fertile.  Many  times  each  egg  in  the  nest  will  produce  a  living  poult. 
No  more  eggs  should  be  put  under  a  hen  than  she  can  properly  cover.  Domestic 
hens  of  course  cannot  cover  nearly  as  many  as  the  turkey  hens.  It  is  much  better 
to  put  too  few  under  a  hen  than  too  many.  If  too  many  eggs  are  given  for  a 
sitting,  a  poor  hatch  is  almost  certain. 

Two  Broods  in  One  Season. — It  is  natural  for  a  turkey  hen,  when  not 
allowed  to  sit  on  her  first  clutch,  to  lay  a  second  clutch  of  eggs.  She  may  find 
another  nesting  place  to  do  this.  The  first  clutch  of  eggs  can  be  gathered,  given 
proper  care,  and  set.  Thus  by  preventing  the  hen  from  sitting  on  her  first  clutch, 
a  second  may  be  raised  in  one  season. 

Rules  for  Care  of  Setters. 

1.  Dusting  Hens. — Dust  the  hen  with  insect  powder  at  least  twice  while 
setting.    Never  use  kerosene  for  this.    Lice  are  sure  death1  to  young  poults. 

2.  Dust  Bath. — Provide  a  dust  bath  near  her  nest.    This  can  be  done  by 
working  up  a  few  feet  of  ground  in  a  sunny  location.    If  the  soil  is  not  fit  it 
will  be  easy  to  carry  a  bushel  of  dry  loam  to  the  place.     It  is  a  good  plan  to 
throw  some  lice-killing  powder  into  the  dusting  place.     This  will  aid  in  keeping 
the  hen  free  from  lice. 

3.  Fasten  Hen  on  Nest  at  Hatching  Time. — Fasten  the  hen  on  her  nest 
after  she  has  sat  about  26  days  to  prevent  her  leaving  it  before  all  the  poults 
are  strong  enough.     If  the  hen  can  not  be  fastened  on  her  nest,  she  can  often 
be  prevented  from  leaving  by  throwing  corn  within  her  reach. 

4.  Food  and  Water. — Supply  the  hens  with  food  and  good,  clean  water. 
Have  these  close  at  hand.     Corn  and  wheat  are  the  best  feeds  for  them  at  this 
time. 

5.  Grit  and  Charcoal. — Give  them  plenty  of  grit  and  charcoal. 
Brooding  Natural. — If  given  a  little  more  attention  a  domestic  hen  will 

successfully  bring  up  a  brood  of  young  poults  until  they  begin  to  wander,  then 
she  cannot  keep  them  together.  At  this  time  they  should  be  given  to  a  turkey 
hen.  The  poults  will  usually  leave  their  foster  mother  in  time  anyway,  to  go 
with  a  brood  headed  by  a  turkey  hen.  Many  times  the  poults  are  given  to  a 
turkey  hen  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched.  Turkey  hens  are  generally  pretty  good 
mothers.  Those  that  have  reared  a  brood  or  two  will  generally  care  for  the 
poults  better  than  hens  that  have  never  reared  a  brood.  The  little  poults  must 
be  taught  how  to  eat  and  old  hens  usually  give  more  care  and  attention  to  doing 
this.  Domestic  hens  are  often  better,  for  this  purpose,  than  turkey  hens  because 
they  give  the  matter  special  attention  and  teach  the  poults  how  to  eat  when  very 
young. 

Artificial. — The  artificial  brooding  of  poults  has  been  tried  in  some  places. 
Any  person  that  can  successfully  brood  chickens  this  way  can  brood  turkeys. 
Some  breeders  think  it  is  safer  to  brood  a  large  number  of  poults  artificially 
than  to  trust  them  to  turkey  hens.  The  chief  difficulty  to  overcome  in  artificial 


366 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


brooding  is  teaching  the  poults  to  eat.  They  will  run  about  the  brooder  with 
their  heads  up,  never  thinking  to*  look  down  to  the  floor  for  their  food,  until  they 
die  from  hunger  and  exhaustion. 

Teaching  Poults  to  Eat. — To  induce  poults  to  eat  take  the  food  between 
the  fingers  and  hold  it  close  to  their  bills  until  they  take  it.  They  will  have  to  be 
fed  this  way  many  times  a  day  for  several  days  before  they  will  learn  to  eat 
of  their  own  accord  and  to  look  on  the  floor  for  their  food. 

RAISING  POULTS. 

(Valuable  Information  is  Given  in  This  Department  on  the  Feeding  and  Care 

of  Poults.) 

Caring  for  the  poults  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  turkey  raising  and  requires 
the  utmost  care.  One  must  study  and  then  practice  the  things  he  learns,  to  know 
what  to  do  and  just  when  to  do  it.  Practice  makes  perfect  in  this  line  as  well 
as  in  others.  A  person  must  learn  to  use  his  own  head  to  make  a  success  at 
turkey  raising.  He  should  study  the  experiences  of  other  breeders  and  learn 
to  profit  by  their  successes  or  failures.  But  above  all  he  should  study  his  own 
conditions.  One  year's  actual  experience  in  raising  poults  will  teach  him  more 
than  all  he  can  learn  from  others. 

How  to  Handle. 

No  arbitrary  rules  can  be  set  down  for  handling  poults.  One  person  will 
care  for  them  one  way  and  another  will  use  opposite  methods  with  equal 
results.  Some  persons  give  lots  of  freedom,  others  hold  them  in  check.  There 
are  about  as  many  different  methods  of  feeding  as  there  are  neighborhoods 
where  turkeys  are  fed. 

Care  of  Mother  and  Brood. — Where  the  simple  method  of  permitting  the 
turkey  hen  to  take  care  of  herself  and  brood  as  her  nature  and  inclination 
directs,  can  be  followed,  very  little  care  is  necessary.  About  all  that  can  be 
done  is  to  hunt  the  flock  up  once  a  day  to  see  that  they  have  sufficient  food. 
If  it  is  yet  too  early  for  them  to  get  bugs  and  worms  and  if  the  grass  is  not 
green  it  will  be  necessary  to  feed  the  hen  some  whole  corn  and  the  poults 
some  prepared  dry  grain  feed.  Such  extra  feeding,  once  a  day,  will  hasten 
the  growth  of  the  poults  even  when  the  season  is  far  enough  advanced  for 
them  to  pick  up  their  feed. 

Coops. — If  the  flock  is  to  be  confined,  a  lath  or  slat  coop  should  be  placed 
over  the  hen  just  before  the  eggs  are  hatched.  This  will  keep  her  from  leaving 
the  nest  too  soon  and  also  prevent  her  from  wandering  off  with  her  young. 
The  coop  should  be  large  enough  for  her  to  stand  erect  and  move  around. 
The  roof  may  be  covered  with  tar  paper  to  protect  the  brood  from  the  sun 
and  rain.  The  floor  must  be  clean  and  dry  for  the  poults.  It  may  be  of  earth 
or  boards.  However,  earth  is  best  because  a  natural  environment  tends  to 
increase  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  flock  and  helps  to  keep  up  their  spirits. 

Have  Coop  Sufficiently  Large. — Be  sure  the  coop  is  large  enough.  It 
should  be  at  least  from  3  to  4  feet  square.  Many  times  the  restless  condition 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  367 

of  the  mother  hen  is  caused  by  too  small  a  coop.  She  becomes  irritated, 
tramps  about  and  kills  her  young  just  because  the  coop  is  undersized.  Do 
not  try  to  use  a  chicken  coop  for  this  purpose.  The  slat  coop  will  do  for  the 
first  day  or  so. 

Requirements  for  Coop. — Any  coop  or  house  that  will  protect  them  from 
rain  and  storms  and  is  large  enough  will  do  for  the  hen  and  poults  after  they 
are  taken  from  the  slat  coop.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  it  ventilated  and 
not  too  warm  and  damp.  It  should  be  light,  clean,  and  entirely  free  from 
parasites.  These  are  the  essential  requisites  of  the  building  which  is  to  house 
them  the  first  week  or  so. 

Dampness  Injures  Poults. — The  poults  should  be  given  free  range  part 
of  every  day  if  possible,  but  they  should  be  made  to  stay  in  nights  and  on  wet 
days ;  even  the  morning  dew  will  injure  young  poults  as  they  cannot  stand 
the  wet. 

Old  Coops. — Old  coops  should  never  be  used  unless  they  have  been  given 
a  thorough  cleaning  on  all  sides.  A  week  before  the  coop  is  needed  it  should 
be  painted  with  crude  petroleum  in  which  some  naphthalene  balls  have  been 
dissolved.  Fill  every  crack  and  crevice  with  this  and  be  sure  that  all  odor 
from  the  preparation  has  disappeared  before  it  is  used,  because  it  is  harmful 
to  the  young  poults. 

Runs. — Early  in  the  spring  (which  means  until  about  the  last  of  May  in 
the  Northern  states,  for  there  are  generally  some  cold  windy  days  up  to  that 
time)  it  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  a  runway  in  front  of  the  coop.  This  can 
be  made  from  boards  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  one-half  high  and  about  sixteen  feet 
long.  Three  of  these  boards  will  make  a  triangular  shaped  pen  which  will 
protect  the  little  poults  from  the  winds  when  they  run  from  the  coop.  The 
sun  will  shine  into  the  run  and  make  it  warm  and  comfortable.  The  poults 
will  thrive  better  if  they  are  not  exposed  too  much  to  cold  winds.  The  en- 
closure should  be  located  on  high  ground,  that  is  well  drained,  so  the  poults 
will  have  no  water  to  venture  into,  to  get  wet  or  drowned. 

Sun's  Rays. — While  the  poults  are  young  they  must  never  be  allowed 
where  they  will  get  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  or  it  may  wilt  them  completely. 
Many  times  when  they  are  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  they  will  reel 
as  though  suffering  from  sun-stroke  and  become  very  weak.  They  will  then 
move  about  slowly,  dragging  one  foot  after  the  other,  and  give  forth  a  feeble 
peep,  which  means  they  are  near  their  end. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  a  large  run,  as  described  above,  in  which  to 
place  the  hen  and  brood.  The  hen  can  step  over  the  sides  and  leave  the  en- 
closure when  she  so  desires  but  the  poults  cannot.  She  will  not  go  far  away 
from  the  poults.  Many  times,  if  given  entire  freedom  with  her  brood,  the 
hen  will  take  them  into  the  brush  or  into  the  fields,  and  it  will  be  impossible 
to  get  them  into -the  coop  again. 

When  the  poults  are  stout  and  sturdy,  the  hen  can  be  set  at  liberty  so 
as  to  teach  them  how  to  pick  their  own  living  off  the  range.  The  poults  will 
be  old  enough  at  6  or  8  weeks. 


368  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Feeding. 

Various  Methods. — After  thoroughly  investigating  the  many  methods 
used  in  feeding  young  poults,  we  find  to  what  degree  the  general  rules  already 
given  are  followed.  All  who  succeed  use  practically  the  same  methods.  The 
chief  differences  are  as  follows:  first,  soak  some  bread  in  milk  and  squeeze 
it  dry  before  feeding,  giving  it  to  the  poults  as  soon  as  they  will  eat,  while 
others  feed  bread  and  milk  in  a  saucer;  second,  some  give  a  diet  entirely  of 
grain,  while  others  feed  practically  everything  they  think  the  poults  will  eat. 

Follow  Nature  in  Feeding. — Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 
dangers  from  feeding  unnatural  food.  Food  that  is  too  rich  produces  bowel 
trouble  and  other  complications.  Nc  feed  of  any  kind  should  be  given  before 
the  poults  are  from  36  to  48  hours  old. 

Feeds  Used  at  First. 

1.  Cracked  Corn  and  Wheat,  Oatmeal,  Grit  and  Scraps. — Finely  cracked 
corn  or  wheat  or  fine  oatmeal,  together  with  a  little  fine  grit  and  a  very  little 
granulated  meat  scrap.    Feed  the  first  few  days. 

2.  Bread  Soaked  in  Milk. — Stale  bread  soaked  in  sweet  milk.     Press  out 
the  milk  as  much  as  possible.    Poults  are  not  slop  eaters.     Feed  every  hour  or 
two  for  2  or  3  days,  then  add  a  little  hard  boiled  egg,  shell  and  all  broken  fine. 
Caution :  Never  use  sour  milk  and  do  not  feed  bread  soaked  in  this  way  after 
it  has  soured. 

3.  Chick  Foods. — A  diet  of  one  of  the  dry  grain  chick  foods  is  good  for 
poults  the  first  two  weeks. 

4.  Rolled  Oats,  Hard  Boiled  Eggs  and  Lettuce. — Rolled  oats,  hard  boiled 
eggs  and  lettuce,  all  chopped  fine,  make  a  good  food  for  the  first  week.    This 
is  given  to  chicks  being  raised  in  brooders. 

5.  Clabbered  Milk  and  Onion  Tops. — Make  a  curd  by  scalding  clabbered 
milk.    Squeeze  as  dry  as  possible  before  feeding.    Mix  this  with  finely  chopped 
onion  tops  and  add  a  little  black  pepper. 

6.  Hard  Boiled  Eggs  and  Stale  Bread. — Mix  hard  boiled  eggs  and  stale 
bread  into  a  crumbly  mass.    Many  feed  this  with  good  results. 

7.  Bread,  Milk,  Onion  Tops  and  Eggs. — Soak  stale  bread  in  milk  and 
squeeze  dry.    To  this  add  hard  boiled  eggs  and  onions,  chopped  fine.    As  the 
appetite  increases,  stale  bread,  corn  meal,  onion  tops,  rolled  oats,  oat  meal, 
middlings,  etc.,  may  be  added  to  the  ration. 

8.  Wheat,  Oatmeal  and  Cracked  Corn. — A  mixture  of  broken  wheat,  oat- 
meal, and  finely  cracked  corn  is  fed  by  one  of  the  most  successful  breeders  in 
the  country. 

Grit.— Grit  should  be  kept  before  the  poults  from  the  first.  The  poults 
cannot  grind  their  food  without  it.  Coarse  sand  is  fine  for  this  purpose,  and 
it  will  supply  all  the  grit  that  is  needed  if  kept  constantly  on  hand. 

Water. — Give  the  poults  plenty  of  good  clean  water.  Keep  it  before  them 
at  all  times  and  keep  the  water  dishes  scalded  out. 

Charcoal. — Charcoal  is  another  fine  thing  for  the  poults,  as  it  is  a  safe- 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  369 

guard  against  fermentation  in  the  gizzard  or  crop  and  thus  aids  digestion. 
Charcoal  helps  to  keep  the  poults  in  good  health.  If  given  at  first  it  should 
be  finely  ground. 

Green  Feed. — If  the  poults  are  not  at  large,  they  should  have  a  supply  of 
fresh  green  feed  given  them.  If  a  run  is  used,  it  should  be  moved  to  a  fresh 
spot  every  day. 

Dried  Blood. — A  little  dried  blood  is  very  good  to  mix  with  the  feed  of 
the  poults  as  it  takes  the  place  of  worms.  Too  much,  however,  will  loosen  the 
bowels. 

Meat. — After  the  first  couple  of  days  it  is  well  to  add  a  little  finely  cut 
meat  to  the  ration.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  meat  is  pure  and  sweet. 
Infected  or  tainted  meat  will  injure  the  bowels  of  the  young  poults  in  a  few 
hours  and  cause  great  trouble.  Cooked  meat  is  better  for  them  than  green 
meat.  If  any  green  meat  is  fed,  have  it  finely  cut  and  feed  very  little  at  first. 
Well  cooked,  lean  beef,  cut  into  fine  pieces  is  very  good  for  this  purpose. 

When  to  Feed  Little  Poults. — One  should  begin  giving  little  poults  food 
quite  early  in  the  morning  and  should  feed  them  at  frequent  intervals  during 
the  day — probably  from  4  to  6  times  a  day,  the  first  couple  of  weeks. 

Amount  to  Feed. — Give  them  only  what  they  will  eat  willingly  and  no 
more.  Be  sure  they  have  sufficient  food  to  supply  their  wants  but  avoid  over- 
feeding them.  Overfeeding  is  dangerous.  It  has  a  tendency  to  congest  and 
clog  the  bowels.  Many  poults  are  killed  by  overfeeding.  Even  too  much  milk 
curd  or  hard  boiled  egg  is  injurious. 

Hand  Feeding  Important. — It  must  be  remembered  in  raising  poults  that 
turkey  hens  are  not  as  attentive  to  their  offspring  as  domestic  hens.  They 
will  not  spend  as  much  time  in  teaching  them  to  eat.  For  this  reason  hand 
feeding  is  important,  in  fact,  too  much  stress  can  hardly  be  laid  upon  it.  A 
great  deal  of  benefit  might  result  if  more  attention  were  paid  to  practicing 
it.  To  feed  by  hand  successfully  one  must  take  the  food  between  the  thumb 
and  fingers,  hold  it  to  the  beak  of  the  young  poult,  and  induce  it  to  eat.  This 
requires  patience  but  it  will  often  return  benefits  far  in  excess  to  the  effort 
and  time  expended. 

Overdoing. — The  best  results  can  never  be  obtained  by  handling  turkeys 
like  hothouse  plants  or  cage  birds.  Such  handling  does  not  agree  with 
their  semi-wild  nature.  It  is  natural  for  turkeys  to  wander  over  the  range 
and  pick  up  their  feed  at  leisure,  getting  plenty  of  exercise  as  they  eat.  In 
their  present  semi-domestic  condition,  they  require  care  and  attention  but  this 
should  not  be  overdone.  One  must  use  common  sense  in  tending  them.  Do 
not  feed  turkeys  on  unnatural  foods  nor  overfeed  them  at  any  time.  Give 
them  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  outdoor  exercise.  Treat  them  like  turkeys. 

Neglect. — The  mistake  is  often  made  of  giving  poults  too  much  care  when 
young  and  then  neglecting  them  as  they  grow  older,  perhaps  at  just  the  time 
they  need  the  most  attention.  One  enjoys  caring  for  the  "cute  little  poults", 
but  the  novelty  wears  off  to  their  disadvantage  as  they  grow  older. 

Times  for  Special  Care. — There  are  two  times  when  poults  need  special 
care.  The  first  is  when  they  are  growing  their  feathers  and  the  heat  easily 


370 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


overcomes  them.  The  second  is  in  the  fall  when  the  frost  destroys  their 
natural  foods  on  the  range.  Many  poults  are  lost  at  these  critical  times  every 
year.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  they  have  plenty  to  eat  at  these  times. 
While  they  are  growing  their  feathers  they  should  not  be  allowed  in  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun. 

Feeds  For  Older  Poults. 

1  Corn,  Wheat  and  Oats. — As  the  poults  grow  older  a  mixture  of 
coarsely  cracked  corn,  whole  wheat  and  hulled  oats  are  excellent.  Still  later 
whole  grains  of  corn  should  be  given. 

2.  Hulled  Oats. — A  more  nutritious  grain   for  growing  poults  is  not 
known  than  hulled  oats.    This  can  be  fed  even  before  corn  or  wheat  is  given. 
Oats  should  be  hulled  to  avoid  the  injurious  effects  caused  by  the  pricking 
and  irritating  portions  of  the  hull.    Plump,  heavy  oats  that  are  mostly  kernel 
should  be  selected  for  this  purpose. 

3.  Oatmeal,  Wheat,  Corn,  Meat  Scrap. — A  good  ration  to  feed  at  this 
time  is  oatmeal  and  finely  cracked  corn  or  wheat.    To  this  add  a  little  finely 
cut  meat.    Have  the  meat  pure  and  sweet. 

As  the  poults  grow  older,  the  size  of  the  grains  can  be  increased  until  the 
whole  grains  are  being  fed.  They  will  learn  to  forage  more  each  day  and 
the  more  they  pick  up  for  themselves  the  less  food  will  have  to  be  given  them. 
However,  the  breeders  who  have  the  best  success  are  those  who  feed  their 
turkeys  at  least  once  a  day,  regardless  of  their  age  or  the  condition  of  the 
range.  The  poults  should  always  have  access  to  good  clean  water.  When  on 
the  range  they  will  pick  up  enough  grit;  however,  it  is  always  well  to  keep 
them  supplied  with  charcoal. 

Feed  Wandering  Flocks  Once  a  Day. — If  the  poults  have  been  confined 
they  can  be  given  their  liberty  when  about  two  weeks  old.  They  should  be 
watched  and  fed  once  or  twice  a  day.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  get  them  in  the 
habit  of  coming  to  the  barn  every  night  for  food.  If  they  miss  coming  of  their 
own  accord  just  once,  they  should  be  brought  up  or  they  will  not  come  again. 
Feeding  them  at  least  once  a  day  helps  to  keep  them  tame  and  makes  them 
mature  earlier. 

Feeding  in  Wet  Weather. — A  continued  wet  spell  soon  deprives  the 
poults  of  the  bugs  and  worms  they  are  used  to  feeding  upon  and  also  keeps 
them  from  getting  enough  other  food.  They  should  be  fed  at  least  twice  a 
day  under  such  conditions. 

Avoid  Poor  Grain. — It  does  not  pay  in  the  long  run  to  use  shriveled, 
musty  or  poor  grain  of  any  description.  To  do  so  is  but  a  loss  of  time  and 
money  for  the  results  are  certain  to  be  disappointing.  The  greatest  financial 
rewards  are  gained  by  those  who  keep  the  best  stock  and  give  them  the  best 
food  and  care.  Good  sound  grain  is  the  best  at  all  times  for  feeding  the  grow- 
ing poults. 

Stock  Turkeys. — A  great  many  breeders  make  the  great  mistake  of  selling 
off  their  very  best,  most  thrifty  birds  and  keeping  the  least  matured  for  breed- 
ing stock.  They  feed  the  birds  altogether  instead  of  separating  their  breeding 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  371 

stock  from  those  intended  for  market.  This  practice  soon  undermines  the 
vitality  of  the  flock.  The  very  best  should  be  kept  for  producing  stock  and 
the  others  sent  to  market.  Do  not  keep  fowls  for  breeders  that  are  poor  and 
thin  in  flesh. 

Condition  for  Egg  Production. — To  secure  the  best  results  in  egg  produc- 
tion hens  should  neither  be  too  lean  nor  too  fat.  They  should  be  kept  in  good 
condition  out  of  laying  season  and  during  it.  When  out  of  laying  season  they 
should  have  food  enough  to  maintain  their  physical  condition  and  during  it 
they  must  have  the  food  suitable  for  egg  production.  Too  much  fat  in  the 
body  comes  from  feeding  an  excess  of  fat  producing  material  while  the  hen 
is  not  laying.  While  laying  a  hen  seldom  becomes  overfat. 

Feeds. 

1.  Boiled  Oats,  Wheat,  Corn. — An  excellent  feed  for  stock  turkeys  is 
boiled  oats,  drained  of  all  moisture,  a  little  corn,  and  some  wheat.  This  ration 
is  one  of  the  best  known  to  make  turkey  hens  lay.  It  can  be  successfully  fed 
if  the  hens  are  kept  in  condition  before  the  laying  season. 

Feeding  For  Market. 

Fall  Feeding. — At  this  time  of  the  year  the  turkeys  must  be  sure  to  be 
fed.  The  cold  weather  and  frosts  make  the  natural  food  scarce  and  it  must 
be  supplied  them.  Many  turkeys  die  at  this  time  of  the  year  from  neglect. 
Feed  must  be  given  to  begin  their  preparation  for  market.  If  it  is  not  given 
them  they  will  lose  fat  and  flesh  in  hunting  for  it.  A  mixture  of  corn  and 
wheat  is  the  best  for  this  purpose.  Just  a  little  should  be  fed  at  first,  and  the 
supply  gradually  increased  until  they  are  fed  all  they  will  eat.  Feed  them  three 
times  a  day  at  the  same  place  and  they  will  soon  form  the  habit  of  coming  to 
that  place  for  their  food.  When  their  longing  for  food  is  satisfied,  they  will 
cease  taking  such  violent  exercise  and  put  on  flesh. 

Fattening. 

Confinement. — The  most  successful  turkey  raisers  in  this  country  never 
confine  their  fowls  to  fatten  them,  but  allow  them  free  range  and  feed  them 
all  the  wholesome  fattening  grain  they  will  eat. 

Feeding.— The  main  thing  is  to  keep  the  turkeys  growing  from  start  to 
finish  and  have  them  ready  for  market  by  Thanksgiving.  Prices  are  generally 
higher  at  Thanksgiving  than  the  holidays.  To  do  this  the  birds  should  be 
well  fed  when  cold  weather  sets  in  and  should  be  in  robust  condition.  Wher 
the  turkeys  are  used  to  grain  feeding  as  given  above,  they  should  be  given 
one  of  the  following  feeds : 

Feeds. 

1  Corn  —Give  them  all  they  will  eat  of  sound  old  corn.  If  new  corn 
is  fed  in  large  quantities  it  often  gives  turkeys  diarrhea  and  keeps  them  f 


372 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


putting  on  weight.    If  new  corn  must  be  fed  it  should  be  introduced  gradually 
into  the  ration. 

2.  Corn,  Wheat,  Oats,  Corn  Meal,  Milk. — Feed  a  grain  mixture  of  corn 
and  wheat,  and  a  mash  of  corn  meal  and  ground  oats  mixed  with  milk.    Give 
the  grain  feed  morning  and  night;  the  mash  at  noon.    If  more  convenient  the 
mash  may  be  fed  twice  between  morning  and  evening — about  10  o'clock  and 
2  o'clock.    Feed  all  they  will  eat  up  clean  with  a  relish  each  time. 

3.  Chestnuts  and  Celery  Seed. — If  one  is  near  a  market  where  he  can 
get  an  extra  big  price,  it  may  pay  him  to  feed  the  fowls  chestnuts  and  celery 
seed  during  the  last  few  weeks  of  fattening.     Feeding  these  gives  the  flesh  a 
splendid  flavor  and  quality.    They  are  rather  expensive,  however,  and  it  will 
not  pay  to  feed  them  unless  a  much  higher  price  can  be  obtained  for  them  on 
the  market. 

Grit  and  Water. — See  that  a  fresh  supply  of  grit  is  before  the  fowls  at 
all  times  and  plenty  of  good  clean  water. 

Marketing. 

It  requires  quite  as  much  care  to  kill  and  prepare  turkeys  for  market  as 
it  does  to  raise  them.  If  the  proper  time  and  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the 
killing,  dressing  and  packing  for  market,  the  birds  should  be  sold  alive.  A 
great  deal  depends  upon  the  proper  marketing,  so  much  so  in  fact  that  small 
growers  should  either  dress  and  sell  to  their  home  market  or  sell  to  some 
person  making  a  business  of  handling  such  stock.  Carelessly  dressed  stock 
never  commands  the  highest  quotations,  no  matter  how  well  fattened  it  is. 
Stock  with  bruised  or  torn  skin  or  scalded  stock  is  not  wanted,  except  at  low 
prices.  For  instance,  if  a  box  of  a  dozen  turkeys  contained  just  2  or  3  damaged 
birds,  the  whole  12  would  be  sold  at  a  lower  figure  than  they  would  otherwise 
bring.  Dress  the  birds  well  or  sell  them  alive. 

Killing. — It  is  hard  enough  to  kill  turkeys  at  best,  so  the  most  humane 
methods  should  be  used.  No  food  should  be  given  the  birds  for  24  hours 
before  killing  them.  This  permits  the  entrails  and  crop  to  become  emptied 
and  lessens  the  danger  of  spoiling. 

Methods  Used. 

1.  Stunning  and  Sticking. — The  most  common  method  of  killing  and 
we  believe  the  most  humane  method,  is  as  follows :  Suspend  a  cord  or  wire 
from  a  beam  or  some  object  above  the  head  so  that  the  lower  end  comes 
about  even  with  the  shoulder;  hang  Jhe  bird  to  this  by  his  shanks — head 
downward;  hit  a  sharp  blow  on  the  back  of  the  head  to  remove  all  sense  of 
pain ;  reach  the  knife  through  the  mouth  and  cut  crosswise  to  sever  the  arteries 
in  the  throat  and  allow  the  bird  to  bleed.  The  head  can  be  held  downward 
by  a  weight  with  a  short  cord  and  a  hook  to  fasten  in  the  beak  or  nostrils. 
When  the  blow  is  delivered  properly,  the  muscles  of  the  bird  will  relax  im- 
mediately and  the  feathers  can  be  removed. 

Breaking  Neck  with  Backward  Jerk. — Another  plan  is  to  break  the  neck 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  373 

with  a  quick  jerk  or  twist  backward.  After  the  neck  is  disjointed  the  head  is 
pulled  away,  so  that  it  will  form  an  open  place  in  which  the  blood  may  settle. 
It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  birds  will  keep  longer  when  killed  this  way 
than  when  killed  by  the  other  methods,  as  there  is  no  opening  to  admit  the 
air  into  the  body.  This  method  requires  a  little  practice  to  do  it  well. 

Beheading. — A  third  way  is  the  old  method  of  beheading  with  an  ax, 
which  has  been  used  for  so  many  years.  This  plan  is  not  as  good  as  the  other 
two  when  the  birds  are  sent  away  from  the  home  market  because  large 
markets  demand  that  the  heads  be  left  on. 

Dressing. 

Dry-picking. — If  the  birds  are  to  be  dry  picked,  begin  plucking  out  the 
feathers  immediately  after  sticking  them  before  the  blood  stops  flowing.  Be 
careful  not  to  tear  the  flesh.  Pull  the  wing  feathers  and  the  main  tail  feathers 
first  by  yanking  them  straight  out.  Some  markets  demand  that  the  main 
feathers  of  the  tail  and  the  primaries  of  the  wings  be  left  on  the  carcass,  and 
if  that  is  the  case  they  should  not  be  removed.  Remove  the  breast  feathers 
next  because  the  skin  of  the  breast  is  tender  and  likely  to  tear  if  cold.  Jerk 
them  straight  outward  from  the  bird  as  it  hangs,  a  few  at  a  time.  After 
plucking  the  breast  move  up  over  the  body  and  then  to  the  back.  Finish  on 
the  neck.  A  few  neck  feathers  are  usually  left  on.  Do  not  remove  the  en- 
trails, head  or  feet.  Be  sure  the  whole  carcass  is  absolutely  clean.  Wash 
out  the  mouth  to  remove  the  blood. 

Scalding. — Everyone  knows  this  method.  However,  let  me  urge  the  per- 
former to  guard  against  tearing  or  breaking  the  skin  while  plucking  after  the 
bird  is  scalded.  Do  the  plucking  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Plumping. — Before  plumping,  hang  the  bird,  head  downward,  in  a  cool 
place  to  remove  all  animal  heat  from  the  body.  To  plump  simply  hold  the 
bird  in  cold  water  for  a  short  time.  This  improves  them  whether  dry-picked 
or  scalded.  In  cold  weather,  some  breeders  prefer  keeping  the  birds  out  of 
cold  water  and  simply  hanging  them  head  downward,  after  they  are  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  in  the  open  air  to  dry.  Of  course,  this  can  be  done  only 
when  the  weather  is  cold. 

Packing. 

Packing  Several  Together. — When  packing  a  number  of  specimens  for  the 
same  destination,  they  can  be  put  in  a  barrel  or  close  box.  Line  these  with 
manila  or  white  paper  (do  not  use  printed,  soiled  or  brown  paper.)  Pack  them 
as  closely  as  possible.  The  holes  left  can  be  filled  with  fine  excelsior.  In 
shipping  to  a  critical  market  do  not  use  straw  or  hay  as  it  stains  or  marks 
the  birds,  which  detracts  from  their  value.  Be  sure  no  space  is  left  for  the 
birds  to  chuck  around  in  transit.  When  the  box  or  barrel  is  nailed  up,  desig- 
nate its  contents  on  the  outside.  It  is  bad  practice  to  ship  mixed  lots  of 
poultry  in  the  same  package  when  it  can  be  avoided. 

Packing  One  Bird. — Line  a  clean  wooden  box  with  two  thicknesses  of 
wrapping  paper ;  be  sure  the  paper  has  a  smooth  surface.  Let  the  paper  ex- 


374  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

tend  over  the  sides  of  the  box.  In  this,  make  a  good  nest  of  fine  excelsior. 
Put  the  bird  on  its  back  in  the  nest  and  cover  it  with  the  projecting  paper. 
Put  enough  excelsior  on  top  to  prevent  shifting  and  nail  up  the  box.  This 
method  of  packing  a  bird  insures  a  fine  appearance  when  it  arrives  at  its 
destination.  (See  illustration). 

VALUABLE  POINTS  FOR  SUCCESSFUL  TURKEY  RAISING. 

1.  The  young  turkey  should  never  be  permitted  to  get  wet :  the  slightest 
dampness  is  generally  fatal  to  him. 

2.  Feed  nothing  from  24  to  36  hours  after  they  are  hatched. 

3.  Never  use  an  old  coop  without  first  cleaning  it  thoroughly,  inside  and 
out,  as  described  under  "Coops". 

4.  Before 'putting  the  little  poults  into  a  coop,  see  that  they  are  perfectly 
clean  and  free  from  lice.    Dust  them  with  a  good  insect  powder  at  least  twice 
a  week. 

5.  Look  for  mites  and  large  lice  on  the  necks,  heads  and  vents.     Prac- 
tically all  the  young  poults  that  die,  die  from  lice. 

6.  Keep  the  hen  free  from  lice.    Dust  her  every  week  with  lice  powder. 
Give  her  a  good  dust  bath  in  which  to  dust  herself. 

7.  For  lice,  grease  the  necks,  heads  and  rumps  with  lard.     Never  use 
kerosene.    Do  not  use  too  much  lard  and  work  it  well  into  the  down.     If  too 
much  lard  has  been  applied,  the  down  will  stick  together. 

8.  Dirt  and  filth  will  make  very  short  work  of  young  poults. 

9.  Give  water  in  shallow  vessels  so  they  can  not  get  wet  above  the  beaks. 

10.  Remove  coops  to  new  ground  every  day  to  avoid  disease  and  furnish 
fresh  grass. 

11.  Tend  to  the  poults  carefully  until  they  are  well  feathered.     Have  them 
in  the  open  on  dry  warm  days. 

12.  An  open  shed,  facing  south,  with  a  high  roost  is  best  for  growing  turkeys. 
13.     One  mating  of  male  and  female  fertilizes  all  the  eggs  laid  in  one 

season,  so  one  male  will  be  enough  for  12  or  more  hens. 

14.  A  good  mating  is  made  by  two-year-old  gobblers  with  pullets  or  year- 
ling gobblers  with  old  hens.     It  is  better  not  to  mate  gobblers  and  hens  of  the 
same  age. 

15.  Turkeys  can  be  successfully  hatched  in  an  incubator  and  reared  in  a 
brooder  until  they  are  3  months  old,  but  in  lots  of  no  more  than  25,  because  they 
require  constant  attention. 

16.  Do  not  mate  a  40-pound  gobbler  with  a  little  hen  as  injury  is  liable  to 
result.     Use  a  medium  sized  gobbler.     The  poults  take  their  size  more  from  the 
hen. 

17.     Many  farmers  use  capons  to   mother  young  poults.     They  make 
splendid  nurses. 

18.     One  can  tell  a  young  gobbler  by  his  masculine  appearing  head,  heavy 
caruncles,  the  development  of  "tassels"  on  his  breast,  and  his  heavy  build. 


POULTRY  RAISING— TURKEYS  375 

19.  Do  not  keep  adult  turkeys  in  confinement.       It  will  make  them  pine 
away. 

20.  If  turkeys  are  fed  in  the  barnyard  every  morning  and  evening  they  will 
not  stray  very  far  away.     However  they  cannot  be  kept  from  roaming  about. 

21.  Hen  turkeys  prefer  making  their  own  nests. 

22.  Feed  little  poults   many  times  a  day  and  they  will  eat  with  a  relish. 
Do  not  overfeed. 

23.  Keep  the  best  stock  for  breeding  purposes.     Build  up  the  flock. 

24.  To  insure  the  best  egg  production,  keep  the  turkey  hens  in  good  shape 
when  out  of  the  laying  season. 

25.  Do  not  feed  a  mash  to  grown  turkeys.      Feed  whole  grains,  principally 
wheat,  corn,  and  oats.     Do  not  feed  new  corn  to  them  in  large  quantities.     Give 
old  corn  if  possible  and  be  on  the  safe  side. 


TREATMENT  FOR  DISEASES^  OF  TURKEYS. 

Blackhead. 

This  is  a  very  serious  disease  which  is  common  and  most  injurious  to 
turkeys.  It  first  attacks  the  blind  intestine,  situated  between  the  large  and 
small  intestines.  Then  it  attacks  the  liver,  which  becomes  very  much  en- 
larged. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  a  germ  or  microbe,  which  enters  the  digestive 
organs  of  healthy  birds  by  means  of  food  or  water  infected  by  the  excrement 
of  a  sick  bird.  Eggs  may  also  be  a  means  of  infection.  While  it  is  not  proven 
that  the  germ  or  microbe  is  present  within  the  egg  of  the  diseased  turkey,  it 
no  doubt  often  exists  on  the  outside  of  the  egg.  For  this  reason  the  eggs 
should  be  carefully  cleansed  with  a  cloth  wet  in  alcohol  before  they  are  put 
into  the  incubator  or  under  the  hen.  It  has  been  proved  that  adult  fowls 
as  well  as  sparrows,  pigeons,  etc.,  act  as  hosts  to  these  microbes.  Although 
they  have  a  great  degree  of  resistance  themselves,  they  are  a  means  of  in- 
fecting turkeys.  Young  turkeys  being  more  susceptible,  contract  a  more  fatal 
form  of  the  disease  and  nearly  all  die.  For  this  reason  it  is  much  better  to 
keep  turkeys  entirely  separated  from  other  fowls. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  blackhead  are  more  frequently  seen  in 
young  turkeys.  The  bird  stands  by  itself  with  drooping  wings  and  tail ;  shows 
a  loss  in  weight  and  has  no  appetite.  The  head  and  comb  show  a  dark  purple 
color  when  the  disease  is  at  its  height.  Diarrhea  is  a  marked  symptom  caused 
from  inflammation  and  internal  weakness. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  largely  preventive  as  the  use  of  medicine 
has  not  proved  very  successful. 

Preventive  Treatment. — The  measures  of  prevention  are  summarized  as 
follows : 

The  turkeys  should  be  kept  on  fresh,  new  grounds  and  isolated  entirely 
from  any  other  fowls. 

Keep  very  close  watch  of  every  turkey  and  at  the  first  indication  of 
disease,  isolate  the  bird  until  the  nature  of  the  trouble  is  ascertained.  To 
leg-band  each  turkey  and  keep  a  record  of  its  weight  from  time  to  time  would 
be  a  good  plan.  If  it  is  found  that  any  bird  is  losing  weight,  it  should  be 
regarded  with  suspicion  and  taken  from  the  flock. 

If  blackhead  exists  in  any  of  the  poultry,  the  houses  and  feed  boxes 
should  be  kept  free  from  mice  and  rats,  and  the  yards  from  sparrows  or 
pigeons,  as  these  have  been  known  to  carry  the  infection. 

Frequent  disinfection  of  houses,  drinking  and  feed  troughs. 

Immediately  burn  the  body  of  any  bird  dying  of  the  disease. 

In  all  bowel  trouble  of  turkeys  the  feeding  of  boiled  rice  has  proven 
beneficial,  and  it  is  largely  practiced  by  experienced  poultry  men  to  prevent 

376 


DISEASES  OF  TURKEYS— TREATMENT  377 

the  coming  of  the  dreaded  diarrhea.    Avoid  feeding  wet  or  sloppy  foods,  and 
guard  against  the  young  poults  taking  cold. 

Ten  grains  of  sulphur  mixed  with  one  grain  of  sulphate  of  iron;  or  ten 
grains  sulphur,  one  grain  sulphate  of  iron  and  one  grain  sulphate  quinine. 
This  treatment  should  be  repeated  2  or  3  times  daily  for  considerable  time  to 
obtain  results. 

For  turkeys  under  3  months  old  give  ^  grain  of  copperas  and  2^  grains 
of  salicylate  of  soda  in  the  evening.  Give  epsom  salts  every  3  or  4  days,  and 
keep  the  ground  and  feeding  places  well  sprinkled  with  slaked  lime. 

Bowel  Trouble. 

Caution :  Simple  bowel  trouble  should  not  be  mistaken  for  cholera  or 
blackhead. 

Indigestion  is  the  prime  factor  in  this  trouble,  and  this  is  brought  about 
by  improper  feeding,  exposure  to  cold  and  dampness.  Filth  or  lice  may  also 
be  a  cause. 

Treatment. — The  best  cure  is  to  remove  the  cause,  which  is  generally 
improper  feeding. 

Rice  boiled  in  milk  until  it  is  almost  dry,  is  highly  recommended  for 
diarrhea. 

The  feeding  of  finely  broken  charcoal,  will  be  found  a  great  aid  to  diges- 
tion, and  a  safeguard  against  fermentation  in  the  crop  and  gizzard. 

Cottage  cheese  seasoned  with  black  pepper  has  been  very  successful. 

Mix  equal  parts  of  cloves,  cinnamon,  ginger  and  cayenne  pepper.  Mix 
one  level  teaspoonful  of  this  in  the  mash  for  one  dozen  turkeys.  When  they 
are  4  or  5  weeks  old,  double  the  amount. 

Chicken  Pox. 

This  disease  affects  the  head  and  comb  of  turkeys.  It  is  also  known  as 
"sorehead." 

It  is  caused  by  infection. 

Symptoms. — Scabby  eruptions  about  the  head;  there  is  a  feverish  con- 
dition and  loss  of  appetite.  If  it  is  damp  weather  there  may  be  cankers  in  the 
mouth  and  throat. 

Treatment— Isolate  the  affected  poults;  soak  the  scabs  off  with  warm 
water;  then  wash  the  sores  with  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  pot- 
assium permanganate. 

Add  just  a  little  kerosene  to  every  dish  of  drinking  water  as  a  preventive 
treatment. 

Bathe  head  and  eyes  with  equal  parts  water  and  witchhazel. 

There  is  nothing  better  than  vaseline  for  the  eruptions. 

Diphtheria.— (See  "Chicken  Department"). 


378  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Gapes. 

This  is  sure  to  prove  a  very  troublesome  and  destructive  ailment  with 
young  turkeys. 

The  cause  is  identical  with  that  which  is  discussed  under  the  head  of 
Gapes  in  chickens.  Some  believe  turkeys  or  chicks  are  infected  with  gapes  by 
eating  angleworms  found  in  the  ground,  which  is  infected  with  gapeworm  eggs, 
as  these  eggs  may  readily  infect  angle  worms. 

Treatment. — The  same  treatment  discussed  under  Gapes  in  chickens  is 
recommended. 

Preventive  Treatment. — Prevention  is  the  main  and  most  successful 
treatment.  Cleanliness  in  poultry  yards  and  houses.  Some  have  recommended 
sprinkling  the  ground  with  water,  into  which  has  been  mixed  sulphuric  acid; 
after  24  hours  cover  the  ground  with  lime  and  turn  under  with  a  plow.  Or  a 
better  way  even  is  to  remove  the  poultry  to  an  entirely  new  ground. 

Impaction  of  Crop. 

Eating  indigestible  substances,  such  as  dry  grass,  feathers,  etc.  The  ab- 
sence of  grit  and  oyster  shells  tend  toward  bringing  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — The  crop  is  bulging  and  hard. 

Treatment. — The  crop  can  usually  be  emptied  by  careful  manipulation. 
First  give  a  teaspoonful  of  sweet  oil  and  then  work  the  contents  of  the  crop 
with  the  fingers  up  through  the  gullet  and  out  through  the  mouth;  holding:  the 
bird  with  its  head  down. 

Leg  Weakness. — (See  "Chicken  Department"). 

Lice  and  Mites. 

Symptoms. — Much  the  same  as  in  other  fowls,  only  that  turkeys  are  much 
more  susceptible  to  unfavorable  conditions  than  other  birds.  They  must  be  care- 
fully protected  from  the  effects  of  parasites,  dampness  and  excessive  heat,  until 
they  are  able  to  wander  away  with  the  hen  turkey.  They  thrive  much  better 
when  not  confined. 

Treatment. — Turkeys  are  in  more  danger  from  the  effects  of  parasites 
directly  after  they  are  hatched,  so  the  best  plan  is  to  treat  the  hen  turkey 
before  they  are  hatched.  The  feathers  should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with 
insect  powder  down  to  the  skin,  using  great  care  not  to  get  it  into  the  eyes. 
This  should  be  repeated  several  times  a  week,  until  a  day  or  so  before  hatching. 
There  is  nothing  better  than  the  Persian  insect  powder,  but  any  good  insect 
powder  which  does  not  contain  ingredients  harmful  to  the  eyes  will  answer. 
Never  use  lime  or  sulphur  for  this  purpose,  and  kerosene  should  never  be  used 
to  destroy  lice  on  the  body  of  the  turkey.  As  soon  as  the  turkeys  are  hatched 
examine  them  for  lice.  If  present  they  will  probably  be  found  under  the 
throat,  on  top  of  the  head,  about  the  vent  or  under  the  wing. 

Sweet  Oil  and  Lard:  If  lice  are  found,  the  use  of  a  little  sweet  oil  or 
fresh  lard  will  destroy  them.  Rub  a  very  little  on  top  of  the  head  and  under 
the  throat.  The  insect  powder  can  be  used  for  the  rest  of  the  body. 


DISEASES  OF  TURKEYS— TREATMENT  379 

Limber  Neck. 

This  is  a  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck. 

It  is  caused  by  absorbing  poison  from  the  intestines.  The  presence  of  the 
poison  is  due  to  indigestion  or  worms,  or  from  eating  decayed  meats 'or  moldy 
feed. 

Symptoms. — The  muscles  of  the  neck  become  so  relaxed  they  cannot 
support  the  head. 

Treatment.— A  good  cathartic  may  effect  a  cure  by  cleaning  out  intestines 
and  then  removing  the  cause. 

Give  1  tablespoon  ful  of  castor  oil  to  which  15  drops  of  turpentine  have 
been  added. 

A  level  teaspoonful  of  Epsom  Salts  in  6  of  water  is  fine  for  limber  neck. 

Liver  Disease. 

Liver  trouble  is  one  of  the  most  common  diseases  the  turkey  raiser  has  to 
contend  with. 

It  is  usually  brought  on  by  indigestion  caused  by  overfeeding.  If  the 
digestive  organs  are  overloaded  and  unable  to  perform  their  functions  properly, 
part  of  the  food  decays  before  it  has  time  to  digest,  and  is  as  dangerous  to 
health  as  food  decayed  before  being  eaten.  The  impurities  or  poisonous  matter 
is  carried  into  the  blood  circulation  to  various  parts  of  the  body.  The  liver  acts 
as  a  filter  or  strainer,  and  it  is  here  these  impurities  or  microbes  find  lodging 
and  proceed  to  develop. 

Symptoms. — In  old  birds  symptoms  are  inactiveness,  listlessness,  pros- 
tration, loss  of  appetite  and  a  rapid  loss  in  weight,  accompanied  by  a  yellowish 
discharge  from  the  bowels.  Young  turkeys  are  usually  affected  when  from  two 
to  eight  months  old.  Some  are  taken  very  suddenly,  while  others  droop  around 
for  several  days.  We  have  known  young  turkeys  to  eat  a  hearty  supper,  and 
to  all  appearances  be  in  perfect  health,  the  next  morning  refuse  to  eat  and  by 
night  die.  Others  droop  around  a  day  or  two.  This  trouble  is  not  contagious. 
Turkeys  are  usually  fed  in  the  same  manner,  but  some  being  stronger  than 
others,  are  not  affected  as  soon,  but  keep  coming  down  one  after  another  so  that 
it  appears  contagious.  If  in  the  last  stages  of  this  disease  a  turkey  is  killed  and 
examined,  the  liver  will  be  found  very  much  enjarged,  and  it  may  be  found 
covered  over  with  round,  yellowish,  sac-like  bunches  in  which  a  pasty  or  cheesy 
substance  is  found ;  or  if  the  disease  is  not  fully  developed,  these  sacs  will  con- 
tain a  transparent  liquid. 

Treatment. — There  are  very  few  remedies  for  this  trouble  after  it  gets 
a  start. 

Preventive  Treatment. — A  good  preventive  is  to  take  a  gallon  of  wheat 
pour  5  or  6  tablespoonfuls  of  turpentine  over  it  and  over  all  pour  boiling  water 
and  let  stand  over  night.  In  the  morning  feed  to  the  turkeys.  Give  wheat 
treated  in  this  way  once  or  twice  a  week.  Turkeys  should  not  be  pampered  or 
fed  with  unnatural  food.  Remember  that  it  is  natural  for  them  to  run  about 
here  and  there  seeking  bugs,  seeds,  etc.,  getting  plenty  of  exercise,  as  well  as 


380  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

food,  the  exercise  being  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  turkey  raising. 
Very  young  turkeys  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  when  the  grass  is  wet  and 
deep,  as  becoming  wet  has  an  injurious  effect  on  them. 

Roup. 

Roup  is  one    of  the  most  serious  contagious  diseases. 

Infection  with  the  disease  germ;  these  germs  are  believed  to  be  always 
where  unsanitary  conditions  prevail. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptoms  of  roup  are  those  of  a  severe  cold ;  later 
a  swelling  develops  under  the  eyes;  there  is  discharge  from  the  nostrils;  eyes 
weak  and  watery,  and  the  poult  has  difficulty  in  breathing. 

Treatment. — Isolate  the  poult,  and  disinfect  the  quarters  from  which  it 
was  taken.  Clean  out  the  nostril  passage.  This  may  be  done  by : 

Pressing  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth  from  the  inside  and  squeezing  the 
nostrils  from  above  downward. 

Syringing  out  the  nostrils. 

Dipping  the  fowl's  head  in  a  solution  of  disinfectant  for  a  second  or  two. 
This  method  is  safe  only  when  permanganate  of  potash  is  used. 

Wash  the  mouth  and  nostrils  with  5  percent  solution  of  carbolic  acid- 

Or  use  50  percent  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide  to  wash  nostrils  and 
mouth. 

Scaly  Leg. — (See  "Chicken  Department"). 

Tapeworm. 

Turkeys  are  very  susceptible  to  the  injurious  effects  of  the  tapeworm  and 
other  worms. 

Symptoms. — The  birds  will  steadily  lose  flesh  in  spite  of  a  good  appe- 
tite. They  appear  indolent  and  drowsy.  If  the  droppings  are  watched  pieces 
of  the  worm  will  be  found,  looking  like  narrow  tape. 

Treatment. — If  a  tapeworm  is  even  suspected,  give  the  bird  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  castor  oil  in  which  has  been  mixed  six  drops  of  oil  of  male  fern. 
Give  this  in  the  morning.  It  will  be  better  if  the  feed  has  been  light  the  night 
before.  Give  one  more  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil  in  a  light  mash  2  hours  after 
giving  the  male  fern.  Withhold  all  food  for  3  hours  after  giving  worm  medi- 
cine, and  then  give  a  warm  soft  meal.  Continue  this  diet  for  2  days. 

A  drop  of  kerosene  given  night  and  morning  after  the  turkeys  are  2  or  3 
weeks  old,  is  good  for  worms. 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  an  excellent  remedy. 

One-half  teaspoonful  Epsom  Salts  dissolved  in  'a  little  warm  water  and 
poured  down  the  throat  is  good.  Or  add  a  tablespoonful  of  salts  to  a  quart  of 
drinking  water,  giving  no  other  drink. 

Tuberculosis. — (See  "Chicken  Department"). 
White  Comb.— (See  "Chicken  Department"). 


DUCKS. 


The  average  farmer  has  all  the  facilities  necessary  to  raise  a  large  number 
of  ducks  and  he  can  make  it  a  profitable  source  of  revenue.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  he  should  have  a  pond  or  creek  on  the  place,  to  be  successful  in  the  busi- 
ness, because  many  successful  breeders  have  nothing  but  wells.  The  only  dif- 
ference that  can  be  noticed  between  "water"  and  "upland"  ducks  is  the  cleaner, 
prettier  plumage  of  the  former. 

Meat  Breeds. — Pekin,  Aylesbury,   Muscovy,  Rouen,   Buff,   Cayuga  and 

Swedish. 

Egg  Breeds. — Indian  Runner. 

Ornamental  Breeds. — Call,  Black  East  India,  and  the  Crested  White. 

Weights. 


Breed 

Adult 
Drake 
Pounds 

Young 
Drake 
About 
Pounds 

Adult 
Duck 
Pounds 

Young 
Duck 
About 
Pounds 

Pekin  

9 

7M 

8 

65i 

Aylesbury  

g 

75^ 

8 

§*A 

Muscovy  

10 

7% 

7 

5H 

Rouen  

9 

7% 

8 

6% 

Buff  

8 

6% 

7 

5% 

Cayuga  

8 

§1A 

7 

5% 

Swedish  

8 

§y\ 

7 

5X 

Indian  Runner  

4^ 

3% 

4 

3M 

Call    ...                                               

Bred  for 

small  size. 

Black  East  India                                   

Bred  for 

small  size. 

Crested  White  

7 

5M 

6 

4^ 

Common  Breeds. — Of  the  above  breeds  the  most  prominent  are  the  Pekins, 
Aylesburys,  Muscovys,  Rouens  and  Indian  Runners. 

Pekins. — The  Pekin  ducks  hold  first  place  as  being  the  most  popular 
breed  of  all,  both  to  the  commercial  duck  raisers  and  the  general  farmer.  The 
Pekins  are  smaller  than  the  Rouens,  Muscovys  or  Aylesburys  but  they  have 
long,  deep  bodies,  capable  of  carrying  a  large  amount  of  flesh  in  proportion  to 
their  size.  They  are  easy  fatteners,  rapid  growers,  and  good  breeders.  Pekin 
ducks  are  hardy,  fair  layers  and  practically  non-sitters.  They  are  especially 
adapted  to  the  production  of  flesh.  When  the  ducklings  are  ten  days  old,  they 
will  thrive  under  any  reasonable  conditions  and  they  grow  very  rapidly,  reach- 
ing a  weight  of  about  10  pounds  per  pair  when  10  weeks  old.  Pekin  ducks  are 
docile  and  easily  confined  by  low  fences.  All  of  these  characteristics  combined 
are  what  have  made  the  Pekins  so  popular. 

Color — Creamy  white  with  orange-colored  bills  and  legs. 

381 


382  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Aylesburys. — The  Aylesburys  are  a  little  larger  than  the  Pekins  which 
they  resemble  in  many  ways.  They  are  white  skinned  and  quick  maturing  but 
not  quite  so  hardy  as  the  Pekins.  They  appear  to  have  practically  all  the  qual- 
ities which  have  made  the  Pekin  so  popular,  and  can  be  kept  successfully  on 
either  commercial  or  general  farms. 

Color, — Pure  white. 

Muscovys. — The  Muscovys  are  the  largest  of  the  breeds  but  are  not 
generally  considered  as  good  for  market  purposes  as  the  others,  because  of  the 
difference  in  size  between  the  drake  and  the  duck.  They  are  easily  distinguished 
by  the  crest-like  formation  of  feathers  on  the  head  of  the  duck  which  stands 
up  when  the  bird  is  alarmed  and  the  large  red  face  of  both  the  drake  and  duck. 
A  peculiar  thing  about  the  Muscovys  is  that  they  do  not  quack  like  other  ducks. 
They  are  strong  of  wing  and  will  fly  all  over  the  farm  for  exercise  if  the  wings 
are  not  clipped.  They  are  not  greatly  esteemed  as  layers  but  sometimes  a  few 
good  layers  are  found.  The  meat  is  good  when  the  birds  are  young,  but  as 
they  grow  older,  it  becomes  rather  coarse  and  tough.  Muscovys  are  the  only 
ducks  of  these  practical  breeds  that  prepare  nests  and  deposit  their  eggs.  All 
others  must  be  penned  at  night,  or  they  will  scatter  them  broadcast.  They  are 
unusually  good  foragers,  requiring  very  little  care,  and  can  be  kept  with  a 
fair  degree  of  success  by  general  farmers. 

Colon — White  variety;  pure  white;  pale  orange  or  yellow  legs,  flesh- 
colored  .beak.  Colored  variety:  lustrous  blue-black,  broken  with  a  little  white 
on  body,  breast  and  back;  wing  coverts  lustrous  blue-black,  broken  with  white; 
tail,  black;  bill,  pink;  legs,  yellow  or  dark  leaden. 

Rouens. — The  Rouens  are  decidedly  beautiful  and  this  accounts  for 
much  of  their  popularity.  They  are  not  as  desirable  a  market  duck  a-s  the  Ayles- 
bury  or  Pekin.  They  are  slower  to  mature  than  either;  they  have  dark  pin 
feathers  and  are  not  as  good  layers.  They  are  not  adapted  for  commercial  duck 
farming,  but  they  can  be  kept  successfully  by  fanciers  or  on  general  farms. 

Color. — Drake ;  brown  back,  mixed  with  green ;  green  head  and  tail ; 
neck  has  white  ring  around  it ;  breast  claret ;  wings  have  a  wide  purple  bar  with 
narrow  white  bars  on  either  side  the  purple.  Duck;  barred  on  wings  like  drake; 
brown  penciled  plumage  on  body. 

Indian  Runners. — This  breed  is  much  smaller  than  breeds  of  the  meat 
type  so  fails  as  a  market  duck.  Its  stronghold  is  its  laying  qualities.  A  record 
of  160  eggs  a  year  is  not  at  all  remarkable  for  them.  Their  eggs  are  larger 
than  hen's  eggs  but  smaller  than  those  of  other  ducks.  Indian  Runners  are  non- 
setters,  hardy,  good  foragers  and  active,  They  can  be  told  by  their  upright 
carriage  and  instead  of  waddling  as  other  ducks  do  they  run  rapidly.  There 
are  three  varieties — the  Fawn  and  White,  the  White  and  the  Penciled. 

Housing. 

Houses  similar  to  hen  houses  can  be  used  for  breeding  ducks.  A  certain 
size  coop  will  be  suitable  to  house  many  more  ducks  than  chickens.  For  instance, 
a  flock  of  fifty  ducks  will  thrive  in  an  inclosure  that  would  not  do  for  half  that 


POULTRY  RAISING— DUCKS 


383 


Indian   Runner. 


Pair   of   Pekin   Ducks. 


Rouen. 


White  Muscovy. 


Crested  White. 


_FUt  «ter  trough.  Outtcr  •»«•'  trough. 


384  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

number  of  chickens.  However,  ducks  cannot  stand  as  much  confinement  as  a 
hen.  They  are  more  like  turkeys  in  that  respect.  A  single  boarded  shed  from 
12  to  15  feet  deep,  7  feet  high  in  front  and  4  feet  in  the  rear,  made  wind  and 
water  proof  by  covering  with  prepared  roofing,  makes  a  suitable  building  for 
this  purpose.  A  good  front  is  made  by  one  window,  covered  with  a  good-sized 
muslin  curtain  in  front  of  each  pen.  The  house  should  be  well  ventilated.  The 
floor  can  be  of  dirt  raised  5  to  8  inches  above  the  ground  level,  provided  that 
the  soil  is  well  drained,  or  board  raised  6  to  8  inches  above  ground  level  and 
covered  with  3  or  4  inches  of  dry  sand  or  earth.  Partition  must  be  from  2  to 
2^2  feet  high.  For  breeding  ducks  in  houses,  an  alley  is  not  required  unless 
the  house  is  over  15  feet  deep,  but  it  is  often  used  in  growing  pens  and  brooder 
houses.  The  floor  should  always  be  covered  with  plenty  of  litter,  as  they  do  not 
mind  the  cold  if  they  can  keep  their  feet  warm.  Cold  feet  affects  a  duck  as 
badly  as  a  frozen  comb  does  a  hen.  Ducks  should  be  permitted  to  make  their 
own  nest.  They  are  likely  to  break  their  eggs  unless  nest  boxes  are  used  sim- 
ilar to  those  illustrated.  Six  to  seven  square  feet  of  floor  space  should  be 
allowed  for  each  duck.  The  house  should  be  as  convenient  as  possible  to  save 
time.  Many  people  overlook  the  item  of  labor  in  raising  poultry,  and  by  doing 
so  materially  reduce  theif  profits. 

Breeding. 

Selecting  Stock. — Only  healthy,  active,  medium-sized  females  should 
be  used  for  breeding.  Extra  large  specimens  seldom  prove  as  satisfactory  as 
do  those  of  medium  size,  or  a  little  larger.  They  should  be  matured  and  well 
proportioned.  Pick  out  ducks  with  short  necks,  flat  backs,  medium  long  bodies, 
and  of  good  depth  to  the  keel  bones. 

Caution:  Avoid  ducks  with  watery  eyes  as  it  is  generally  a  sign  of  weak- 
ness. Ducks  should  seldom  be  kept  over  two  years  unless  they  are  extra  good 
breeders  and  layers. 

How  to  Tell  a  Drake. — In  the  colored  breeds  the  difference  in  the  sexes 
is  easily  told  by  the  difference  in  plumage  but  in  the  white  breeds  the  sexes  are 
of  the  .same  color.  However,  the  drake  can  be  told  in  the  white  breeds  as 
he  has  a  more  masculine  and  coarser  appearance,  and  two  of  his  tail  feathers 
curl  over  into  a  short  curl.  Drakes  cannot  always  be  told  by  their  tail  feathers 
as  they  sometimes  get  pulled  out.  A  surer  way  is  to  notice  the  quack.  A  duck 
quacks  and  has  a  deep  bass  voice,  while  the  drake  hisses  and  his  voice  is  very 
soft. 

Number  of  Females  to  a  Male. — Ducks  are  usually  mated  in  flocks  of 
about  30  females  with  6  or  8  males.  One  may  reduce  the  number  of  males 
about  March  1st  and  again  near  the  1st  of  April,  making  the  proportion  after 
the  first  reduction  1  male  to  6  females  and  after  the  second  reduction  1  male 
for  7  to  10  females.  The  males  do  _not  fight  one  another. 

Care  of  Breeding  Stock. — The  stock  is  not  seriously  troubled  by  any 
degree  of  cold,  but  if  early  laying  is  desired,  the  birds  should  have  some  pro- 
tection from  storms  and  should  be  kept  out  of  drafts.  The  litter  should  be 
kept  clean  and  dry.  The  layers  should  be  shut  up  at  night  or  they  will  scatter 


POULTRY  RAISING— DUCKS  nsr, 

their  eggs  all  over  the  place.  They  may  even  lay  them  in  a  pond  and  they  \\ill 
be  lost.  The  eggs  should  be  gathered  early  in  the  morning.  Ducks  lay  early 
and  the  eggs  may  freeze.  They  should  have  their  liberty  during  the  day.  It 
is  not  necessary  for  them  to  have  a  pond  to  swim  in,  but  a  good  swimming  place 
seems  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  eggs. 

Incubation. 

Time  Required. — The  eggs  of  all  breeds  of  ducks  require  28  days  for 
incubation,  except  the  Muscovy  duck  which  requires  from  30  to  35  days. 

Eggs  for  Hatching. — The  first  eggs  the  duck  lays,  if  confined  and  fed 
rather  stimulating  feeds,  seldom  hatch  well. 

Eggs  for  hatching  must  be  fertile  and  strong.  They  can  be  made  this  way 
only,  by  having  the  stock  properly  mated  and  full  of  health  and  vigor. 

Eggs  from  overfat  breeding  stock,  seldom  produce  a  big  percent  of  strong 
young  ducks. 

If  the  eggs  are  dirty  they  should  be  cleaned.  Washing  does  not  seem  to 
injure  their  hatching  qualities. 

Hatching  With  Hens. — Practically  all  duck  eggs  not  hatched  in  incu- 
bators are  hatched  under  hens  because  ducks  do  not  make  satisfactory  setters. 
Before  a  hen  is  set  she  should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with  insect  powder.  If 
several  hens  are  sitting  in  the  same  room  they  should  each  be  confined  to  their 
nests  and  let  off  once  a  day  for  feed  and  water.  If  a  large  number  of  hens  are 
used  for  hatching,  as  many  of  them  as  possible  should  be  set  at  a  time,  and  the 
ducklings  raised  in  brooders.  Hens  must  be  well  taken  care  of  in  hatching  duck 
eggs  because  they  have  to  set  a  week  longer.  After  the  ducklings  pick  the 
shells  it  generally  takes  from  24  to  48  hours  for  them  to  hatch.  For  this  reason 
it  is  best  to  allow  the  hen  to  get  off  the  nest  for  food  and  water  when  the  first 
duckling  picks  its  shell  and  then  keep  her  on  the  nest  for  the  remainder  of  the 
hatch.  The  eggs  should  be  sprinkled  with  warm  water  previous  to  hatching, 
because  ducks'  eggs  require  more  moisture  than  hens'  eggs  at  hatching  time. 

Number  of  Eggs  to  a  Hen. — Put  about  9  eggs  under  a  hen  in  cold  and  11 
in  warm  weather. 

Artificial  Incubation. — The  main  points  on  incubation  are  given  in  the 
chicken  department  and  we  will  not  repeat  them  here.  We  shall  only  mention 
a  few  special  points  which  apply  directly  to  incubating  duck  eggs. 

Temperature. — An  incubator  is  generally  kept  at  a  slightly  lower  tem- 
perature in  hatching  ducks'  eggs  than  in  hatching  chickens'  eggs.  It  should  be 
run  at  103  degrees  the  first  three  weeks  and  104  degrees  the  last  week. 

Supply  Moisture. — It  is  always   advisable  to  supply  moisture   by: 

Introducing  a  pan  of  water,  a  wet  sponge,  or  a  dish  of  moist  sand  below 
the  egg  tray. 

Sprinkling  the  eggs  with  water  heated  to  about  100  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Soaking  or  sprinkling  the  floor  to  the  incubator  room. 

Placing  a  pail  of  warm  water  under  the  lamp. 

Keep  Machine  Closed  at  Hatching  Time.— The  machine  should  be  shut 


386  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

up  tightly  at  hatching  time  to  retain  the  moisture  in  the  incubator.  It  takes 
duck  eggs  quite  a  while  to  hatch,  even  after  the  eggs  are  pipped. 

Turning  and  Cooling. — The  eggs  should  be  turned  twice  each  day  be- 
ginning the  third  and  through  the  24th  day,  and  cooled  once  each  day  begin- 
ning the  8th  and  through  the  26th  day.  In  two  tray  machines  reverse  the  trays 
end  for  end  and  from  one  side  of  the  incubator  to  the  other,  after  turning 
the  eggs. 

Broken  Egg  Shells. — As  the  ducklings  are  hatching,  the  broken  egg- 
shells should  be  removed  every  6  or  7  hours  to  prevent  them  from  slipping  over 
the  pipped  eggs,  which  means  death  to  the  imprisoned  ones. 

Gauge  Machine  Higher  When  Birds  Are  Out. — As  soon  as  the  ducklings 
are  all  out  of  the  shell,  the  machine  should  be  gauged  one  degree  higher.  This 
is  because  the  eggs  radiate  a  great  deal  of  heat  just  before  hatching,  and  the 
duckling,  when  first  out,  absorbs  it,  being  about  like  a  little  sponge.  In  other 
words,  the  rapid  evaporation  which  takes  place  produces  cold.  After  the  birds 
have  dried  off,  the  machine  will  run  at  least  two  degrees  lower  than  when  they 
were  still  in  the  egg.  They  should  be  kept  in  the  machine  from  24  to  36  hours 
after  hatching  before  they  are  removed  to  the  brooder. 

Testing  Eggs. — Directions  for  making  an  egg  tester  are  given  in  the 
chicken  department.  Every  egg  should  be  tested  at  least  twice  during  incuba- 
tion, and  the  infertile  and  dead  germed  ones  taken  out.  It  is  best  to  do  this 
on  the  7th  and  14th  days.  Dead  germs  decompose  rapidly  and  soon  send  off 
an  odor.  White  shelled  eggs  can  sometimes  be  tested  successfully  the  4th  or 
5th  day.  Hold  the  large  end  of  the  eggs  up  when  testing.  This  shows  the  con- 
dition of  the  embryo  and  the  air  cell. 

Fertile  and  Infertile  Eggs. — A  fertile  egg  exposes  a  small  dark  spot  with 
little  blood  veins  extending  in  all  directions  if  the  embryo  is  living.  If  the 
embryo  is  dead  the  veins  will  have  settled  away  from  it  towards  the  edge  of 
the  yolk,  forming  an  irregular  circle  of  blood  which  is  called  a  blood  ring.  After 
the  14th  day  the  eggs  which  have  strong  living  embryos  are  dark  and  partly 
filled  up.  They  also  show  a  distinct  line  of  demarcation  between  the  growing 
embryo  and  the  air  cell,  while  dead  germs  lack  this  distinct  line  and  are  only 
partially  developed. 

An  infertile  egg  appears  practically  fresh,  i.  e.,  looks  perfectly  clear. 

Brooding. 

See  Brooding  in  chicken  department.  It  is  important  in  brooding  ducks 
not  to  have  too  much  heat,  as  it  means  weak  legs.  They  do  not  need  quite  as 
much  heat  as  chickens.  Start  the  brooder  at  about  95  degrees  Fahrenheit  and 
after  the  first  6  or  10  days  reduce  the  heat  to  about  80.  The  reduction  of  heat 
depends  upon  the  season.  At  first  the  ducklings  should  be  kept  around  the 
hover  to  teach  them  the  source  of  the  heat.  Artificial  heat  can  be  removed 
after  about  three  weeks.  The  brooding  systems  used  for  chickens  are  also  good 
for  ducks. 

Brooding  With  Hens. — Ducks  can  also  be  brooded  successfully  by  hens. 


POULTRY  RAISING— DUCKS  387 

If  hens  are  used  it  is  better  to  keep  the  hens  confined  and  allow  the  ducklings 
free  range,  for  hens  are  inclined  to  wander  off  too  far  with  them.  The  young 
ducks  grow  surprisingly  fast  and  soon  adapt  themselves  to  new  conditions. 

After  they  are  3  or  4  weeks  old,  the  ducklings  can  be  kept  in  a  cool  house 
where  they  will  eat  better  and  grow  faster.  When  warm  weather  comes  no 
more  than  a  roof  or  sun  shade  is  necessary  for  them.  In  fact,  any  more  hous- 
ing may  be  detrimental.  The  young  birds  need  protection  from  both  sun  and 
rain,  but  they  must  have  exercise  and  fresh  air.  Their  pen  should  be  kept  as 
clean  as  possible.  As  they  grow  older  it  will  be  found  advisable  not  to  have 
too  many  in  one  pen — no  more  than  can  be  killed  at  one  job.  Ducks  put  on 
flesh  rapidly  but  they  also  fall  away  rapidly  when  excited. 

Handling. — In  handling  ducks  pick  them  up  by  the  neck,  and  do  not 
grasp  them  any  tighter  than  is  necessary  to  hold  them.  Never  pick  a  duck  up 
by  the  legs  because  they  are  too  easily  broken. 

Feeding  Methods. 

Ducks  can  be  fed  successfully  on  the  same  rations  given  for  chickens,  but 
it  is  better  as  a  rule  to  feed  more  mash  feed  and  a  larger  proportion  of  vege- 
table and  green  feeds.  When  ducks  are  raised  for  the  green  ducklings  (green 
ducklings  are  those  which  are  grown  very  rapidly  and  marketed  when  from  8 
to  12  weeks  old.  They  weigh  from  4 1/2  to  6  pounds  each),  they  are  fed  a 
maintenance  ration  only,  after  they  have  stopped  laying  in  the  summer  until 
about  the  first  of  December.  Then  the  amount  of  mash  is  increased  and  a 
laying  ration  given.  Where  ducks  are  kept  for  egg  production  they  should  be 
given  a  laying  ration  the  year  around.  Ducklings  and  ducks  should  be  fed  on 
flat  clean  boards  instead  of  in  troughs.  They  are  rapacious  eaters  and  will  stow 
away  a  lot  of  food.  If  too  concentrated,  too  rich,  they  will  overeat  and  go  off 
their  feed.  When  they  have  free  range  and  a  swimming  place  they  can  stand 
heavier  feeding  than  when  confined.  The  ration  may  be  mixed  and  made  up 
in  many  different  ways  but  it  is  generally  best  to  feed  it  in  the  form  of  a  moist 
mash. 

Ducks  should  always  have  plenty  of  good  clean  water  before  them.  They 
have  no  crops  so  they  must  have  water  to  help  wash  the  food  into  the  gizzard. 

Feeding  Ducklings. 

Methods  Gathered  From  the  Most  Successful  Raisers  in  the  Country. — 

Ducklings  should  not  be  fed  until  they  are  from  24  to  36  hours  old.  They 
should  always  have  plenty  of  water  right  by  their  feeding  place  because  ducks 
need  water  to  wash  down  their  food.  The  water  should  be  deep  enough  for 
them  to  run  their  bills  in  up  to  their  eyes,  as  it  keeps  their  nostrils  washed  out 
and  prevents  disease. 

Five  times  daily,  beginning  early,  feed  them  on  a  mixture  of  equal  parts, 
by  measure,  of  bread  crumbs  and  rolled  oats.  Into  this  thoroughly  mix  3  per- 
cent of  sharp  sand.  Beginning  the  4th  day  change  this  feed  to  equal  parts  corn- 
meal,  rolled  oats,  bran  and  bread ;  then  after  the  7th  day  to  three  parts  bran, 


388 


THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 


one  part  each  of  corn  meal  and  low  grade  wheat  flour,  5  percent  of  beef  scrap, 
and  10  percent  of  green  feed,  with  about  3  percent  of  sand  or  other  grit  in  each 

ration. 

After  the  7th  day,  feed  the  ducklings  four  times  daily  until  they  are  about 
2  or  3  weeks  old,  then  drop  down  to  three  times  daily.  The  grit  or  sand  may 
be  fed  either  in  a  hopper  or  in  the  mash  after  the  young  birds  are  a  week  old, 
but  it  is  usually  fed  in  all  duck  rations.  As  a  rule,  beef  scrap  is  not  fed  until 
the  ducklings  are  a  week  old,  then  5  percent  is  given  in  the  ration.  This  is 
increased  gradually  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  3rd  week  it  is  15  percent.  If  the 
ducks  are  to  be  marketed,  the  proportion  of  corn  meal  should  be  gradually 
increased  and  the  proportion  of  bran  gradually  decreased  until  the  rations  is  the 
same  as  the  fattening  ration  given  below.  Those  saved  for  breeding  purposes 
should  be  given  the  above  ration  with  the  increased  15  percent  of  beef  scrap, 
but  should  not  be  fed  a  fattening  ration  .  They  should  have  a  good  range  where 
they  can  have  plenty  of  grass  and  water,  running  water  if  possible.  If  the 
ducklings  are  confined  in  yards  a  great  deal  of  vegetables  and  green  feed  should 
be  given. 

Fattening  Ration. — Fatten  the  ducks  to  be  marketed  for  two  weeks  on 
the  following  ration  :  two  parts  by  weight  of  low  grade  flour  of  middlings,  three 
parts  of  corn  meal,  one  part  of  bran,  one-half  part  of  beef  scrap,  with  10  per- 
cent green  feed  and  3  percent  grit.  This  mash  is  fed  three  times  daily. 

Another  good  mixture  is :  3  parts  corn  meal,  one  part  each  of  bran  and  low 
grade  wheat  flour,  3  percent  oyster  shell,  5  percent  beef  scrap,  with  grit  and 
green  feed  added. 

Green  feed  tends  to  produce  a  flabby,  rather  than  firm  flesh,  and  to  color 
the  meat,  so  it  may  be  well  to  leave  it  out  the  last  week  of  fattening.  Never- 
theless one  can  'keep  the  birds  in  better  feeding  condition  with  the  green  feed 
in  the  ration. 

Boiled  fish  may  be  substituted  in  place  of  beef  scrap.  This  should  not  be 
fed,  however,  within  12  days  before  the  birds  are  to  be  marketed,  because  it 
tends  to  give  the  meat  a  fishy  taste. 

Another  good  system  for  feeding  ducklings  is  as  follows  :  When  two  weeks 
old  feed  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  shorts,  bran  and  corn  meal.  Mix  these  together 
and  moisten  with  new  milk.  Gradually  decrease  this  and  add  middlings.  At 
two  weeks  begin  to  add  meat  scraps.  Gradually  increase  this  until  at  the  end 
of  7  weeks  it  comprises  about  l/%  of  the  feed.  Have  10  percent  of  sharp  sand 
or  grit  in  each  feed.  (A  duck  has  no  crop,  the  food  going  directly  to  the  giz- 
zard ;  they  must  have  grit  to  help  grind  it.)  Feed  the  birds  all  they  can  eat 
three  times  daily.  Have  plenty  of  water  before  them. — Recommended  by  E. 
Albertson,  Seattle,  Wash. 

The  first  few  days  feed  one  part  meal,  two  parts  bran,  one-half  part  sharp 
sand.  Mix  with  raw  eggs  taken  from  the  incubator — 3  eggs  to  a  quart  of  feed. 
Keep  this  mixture  before  the  ducklings  the  first  four  days.  Give  them  plenty 
of  water.  On  the  fifth  day  begin  feeding  the  mixture  four  times  daily,  adding 
a  little  No.  2  flour  and  beef  scrap.  Gradually  decrease  the  amount  of  eggs  and 
increase  the  amount  of  beef  scrap.  Beginning  the  4th  week  feed  the  following 


POULTRY  RAISING— DUCKS  389 

mixture :  2  parts  corn  meal,  3  parts  bran,  1  part  each  of  beef  scrap  and  No.  2 
flour.  This  can  be  fed  until  the  ducks  are  sold.  If  the  trade  demands  fatter 
birds  the  amount  of  corn  can  be  increased. — F.  H.  Fehrenschild,  Westwood, 
New  Jersey. 

Feed  a  mixture  made  as  follows:  Two  parts  each  of  corn  meal,  ground 
oats,  and  middlings.  For  every  6  quarts  of  these,  add  a  large  handful  of  fine 
sand  and  one  quart  of  meat  scraps.  Mix  thoroughly  and  wet  up  just  a  little 
more  than  for  chicks.  Feed  four  times  a  day.  When  the  ducklings  weigh 
about  2  pounds  apiece,  add  2  parts  of  cracked  corn  to  the  mash  each  night.  You 
can  almost  see  them  plump  up.  They  will  be  ready  for  market  when  about  ten 
weeks  old.  Sell  them  just  before  the  pin  feathers  start-^because  ducks  shrink  in 
flesh  as  the  feathers  come  out. — Merrill  Hutchinson,  Reading,  Mass. 

When  the  ducklings  are  36  hours  old,  feed  them  oatmeal  moistened  with 
sweet  milk.  Feed  this  five  times  daily  the  first  week,  then  add  one  feed  of  shorts 
and'bran  and  a  little  beef  meal  once  a  day  for  the  second  week.  The  third  week 
discontinue  the  oats  and  give  bran  twice  a  day,  and  Kafir  corn  once  a  day. 
When  ten  weeks  old  feed  only  morning  and  evenings. — Mrs.  Henry  Shrader, 
Wauneta,  Kans. 

The  first  two  or  three  days  feed  the  ducklings  the  following  mash :  1  part 
corn  meal,  2  parts  wheat  bran,  one-half  part  middling  and  5  percent  sand.  When 
three  days  old  add  5  percent  meat  scrap  and  one-third  green  stuff  to  this  ration. 
Feed  until  birds  are  about  6  weeks  old,  then  feed  the  following  mixture :  One 
part  each  of  bran,  dry  brewer's  grains,  corn  meal  and  middlings.  To  this  add 
one-third  part  green  stuff,  10  percent  meat  scrap  and  5  percent  sand. — Ever- 
green Poultry  Farm,  Glassboro,  N.  J. 

Feed  a  mash  of  prepared  poultry  feed,  beef  scrap,  sand  and  finely  cut  cow- 
pea  vines  the  first  three  weeks.  The  4th  week  begin  feeding  a  mash  of  one-half 
each  wheat  middlings  and  prepared  feed.  The  6th  week  start  using  all  wheat* 
middlings.  The  4th  week  gradually  begin  increasing  the  amount  of  green  stuff 
and  beef  scraps.  Feed  the  ducklings  5  times  a  day  the  first  two  weeks  and  then 
three  times  daily — 6  a.  m.,  noon  and  5  p.  m.  First  three  weeks  feed  all  they 
will  eat  hut  do  not  crowd  them  the  last  seven  weeks. 

First  week  feed  four  times  daily  on  bran  and  bread  or  cracker  crumbs 
mixed  with  a  little  fine  sand.  The  second  week  begin  feeding  just  as  often,  one- 
third  each  of  bran,  corn  meal  and  bread  or  cracker  crumbs,  adding  a  little  meat 
meal  and  fine  sand.  The  fifth  week  begin  giving  equal  parts  bran  and  corn 
meal,  10  percent  sand  and  meat  meal,  and  mix  in  a  little  cut  clover.  Feed  four 
times  daily  if  confined.— Edward  G.  Norman,  Marietta,  Pa. 

Feed  four  times  daily  the  following  mixture :  1  part  each  shorts,  rolled 
oats,  corn  meal  and  bran,  and  blood  meal,  1  teaspoonful  to  each  quart  of  feed. 
Dampen  this  with  skim  milk  or  water  until  it  crumbles.  Keep  green  food,  water 
and  grit  before  the  ducklings  at  all  times.  The  second  week  begin  feeding  the 
above  ration,  but  use  2  parts  of  bran  instead  of  one  part,  and  a  tablespoonful 
of  blood  meal  to  each  quart  of  food  instead  of  a  teaspoonful.  Keep  grit  and 
water  before  them.— F.  D.  Fowler,  Carlinville,  111. 

When  milk  can  be  fed  reasonably,  the  rations  given  for  crate-fattened 


390  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

chickens,  will  give  good  results  in  fattening  ducklings.  This  method  will  pro- 
duce a  well-bleached  green  duck. 

Celery  seed  is  often  used  in  fattening  ducklings  to  flavor  the  flesh. 

For  the  first  5  days  of  feeding,  give  the  following  mixture:  Equal  parts 
by  measure  of  corn  meal  and  cracker  or  bread  crumbs;  hard  boiled  eggs,  15 
percent  of  total  bulk  of  crackers  and  meal ;  sand,  5  percent  of  the  total  of  meal 
and  crackers.  Mix  thoroughly  with  milk  or  water  and  feed  four  times  daily. 

From  5  to  20  days  old  the  following  mixture  (by  measure)  :  One  part  corn 
meal,  2  parts  bran,  rolled  oats  50  percent  of  this  bulk;  sand  and  beef  scraps 
each  5  percent;  green  feed  10  percent.  Dampen  with  water  to  a  dry  crumbly 
state.  Feed  four  times  daily. 

From  20  to  42  days  old  feed  the  following  four  times  daily  (by  measure)  : 
2  parts  wheat  bran ;  1  part  corn  meal ;  sand  5  percent  of  this  bulk ;  beef  scraps 
5  percent;  green  feed  10  percent.  Moisten  with  water  to  a  dry  crumbly  mass. 

From  42  to  70  days  old  feed  four  times  daily  the  following:  1  part  (by 
measure)  wheat  bran,  2  parts  corn  meal;  beef  scrap  10  percent  of  this  bulk; 
green  feed,  10  percent;  coarse  sand,  5  percent.  Mix  with  water  to  a  crumbly 
mass. 

Hours  for  Feeding.— 6  A.  M.,  10  A.  M.,  2  P.  M.,  and  6  P.  M. 

Feed  for  Breeding  Ducks 

The  ducks  that  are  kept  for  breeding  and  not  for  egg  production  should  be 
kept  on  a  grass  range  if  possible  and  fed  on  the  following:  1  part  each,  by 
weight,  or  low  grade  wheat  flour,  corn  meal  and  green  feed,  2  parts  bran,  3 
percent  grit,  9  percent  beef  scrap.  Dampen  slightly.  Give  this  sparingly  once 
or  twice  every  day,  with  one  feed  of  mixed  grains. 

Another  good  mash  for  breeding  stock  is  as  follows  (by  measure)  :  4  parts 
bran,  3  parts  corn  meal,  ^4  part  beef  scrap,  2  parts  low  grade  wheat  flour,  and 
2  parts  green  feed.  Add  a  little  shell,  grit  or  other  mineral  matter  to  this  and 
make  a  wet  mash.  Feed  sparingly  once  or  twice  daily,  with  one  feed  of  mixed 
grains. 

In  feeding  breeding  stock  give  them  very  little  hard,  dry  grain,  but  more  of 
the  following  mash :  2  parts  each  of  oats,  cracked  corn,  wheat  shorts  and  meat 
scraps.  Keep  a  supply  of  sand  or  other  grit  near  the  feeding  trough. — Merrill 
Hutchinson,  Reading,  Mass. 

For  breeders:  Morning  food,  equal  parts  bran  and  shorts;  corn  and  oats 
chop ;  5  percent  each  fine  grit  and  beef  scrap ;  20  percent  green  cut  clover.  Feed 
wheat  or  oats  at  noon.  Evening  feed  same  as  morning.  For  variety  give  green 
or  boiled  vegetables.  Keep  flock  on  grass  range  with  plenty  of  water. — W.  E. 
Ritter,  Williamsport,  Pa. 

Feed  breeding  stock  the  following:  equal  parts  wheat  bran  and  corn  meal. 
10  percent  green  rye  with  cut  clover,  same  of  beef  scrap.  Mix  a  little  grit  in 
the  food  and  keep  ground  oyster  shells  and  grit  by  them. — James  Rankin,  So. 
Easton,  Mass. 

Begin  feeding  the  breeding  stock  early  in  June  the  following:  one  part 
each  wheat  middlings,  dried  brewers'  grains,  and  corn  meal,  three  parts  bran. 


POULTRY  RAISING— DUCKS  391 

To  this  add  five  percent  each  sand  and  meat  scrap,  and  l/±  green  feed.  Feed 
this  twice  a  day  until  November  1st.  Then  feed  as  follows:  one  part  each  of 
bran,  dried  brewers'  grains  and  middlings,  two  parts  corn  meal,  to  which  add 
one-third  to  l/4  green  stuff,  5  percent  sand  and  15  percent  meat  scraps.  Feed 
night  and  morning.  At  noon  give:  one  part  each  whole  oats  and  cracked  corn. 
July  1st  begin  feeding  first  ration  again. — Evergreen  Poultry  Farm,  Glass- 
boro,  N.  J. 

Feed  breeders  same  as  market  ducks  until  about  eight  weeks  old  then  feed 
twice  a  day  on  the  following  mash:  two  parts  meal,  three  parts  bran,  one  part 
No.  2  flour,  and  ]/2  part  beef  scraps.  About  December  15  change  the  feed  to 
seven  parts  each  of  bran  and  meal,  two  parts  beef  scrap,  and  three  parts  No.  2 
flour.  Also  feed  green  stuff  such  as  beets,  potatoes,  cut  clover  or  apples  until 
the  birds  have  grass  again  in  the  spring. — H.  H.  Fehrenschild,  Westwood, 
N.J. 

For  breeders  feed  night  and  morning  by  measure:  one  part  each  corn  meal 
and  rolled  oats,  four  parts  bran,  and  two  parts  shorts.  Dampen  with  water  or 
skimmed  milk  until  it  is  a  crumbly  mass.  Three  or  four  times  each  week  add 
ground  meat  and  oil  meal  to  the  ration.  Feed  all  they  will  eat  in  about  15 
minutes.  Remove  what  is  left.  Have  grit,  oyster  shell,  green  feed  food  and 
water  constantly  before  them.  Give  free  range  from  9  :30  a.  m.  to  6  at  night. 
— F.  D.  Fowler,  Carlinville,  111. 

Feed  breeders  three  times  daily  on:  one  part  each  of  ground  oats  and  corn 
meal,  two  parts  bran,  four  parts  green  corn  or  cut  clover  chopped  fine,  a  little 
grit  and  beef  meal. — C.  E.  Bradley,  Lake  City,  Iowa. 

Keep  the  breeding  stock  on  a  grass  run  with  plenty  of  water.  In  the  morn- 
ing feed  following  mash :  one  gallon  bran,  two  quarts  of  shorts,  one-half  pound 
beef  scrap,  one-half  pound  oyster  shell,  mixed  thoroughly  with  sweet  skim 
milk.  Give  Kafir  corn  or  corn  at  night. — Mrs.  Henry  Shrader,  Wauneta, 
Kans. 

Give  breeding  stock  free  range  in  a  swamp  where  they  can  get  plenty  of 
bugs,  insects,  mud  frogs,  etc.  Feed  bran  mornings  and  corn  evenings,  also 
plenty  of  meat  scraps. 

This  is  a  good  mixture  for  breeders :  equal  parts  of  wheat  bran,  corn  meal, 
and  green  feed,  also  5  percent  each  of  coarse  sand  or  grit  and  beef  scraps. 

A  ration  for  laying  ducks  is  recommended  as  follows  (by  measure) :  corn 
meal,  50  percent;  green  feed,  15  percent;  wheat  bran,  15  percent;  beef  scraps, 
12  percent ;  grit  or  coarse  sand,  8  percent.  Dampen  to  a  dry  crumbly  state  and 
feed  night  and  morning. 

Laying  Ducks. 

Two  parts  each  of  oats,  wheat  and  barley  to  one  quart  each  buckwheat  and 
corn  ground  together  and  15  percent  of  fish  scrap  added.  This  is  a  splendid 
laying  ration  if  the  fish  can  be  conveniently  obtained. 

A  good  formula  for  feeding  Indian  Runner  ducks  for  eggs  is  as  follows: 
100  pounds  bran,  100  pounds  corn  chops  or  meal,  100  pounds  white  middlings, 
50  pounds  beef  scraps,  50  pounds  alfalfa  meal.  Mix  with  hot  water  before 


392  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

feeding  in  cold  weather.  In  a  box  keep  a  mixture  of  two-third  grit  and  one- 
third  shell,  with  lots  of  good  bedding  for  them  in  the  house.  Feed  them  once 
a  day  when  on  range  and  twice  a  day  when  confined. 

Begin  feeding  Pekin  ducks  for  eggs  about  December  1st.  Feed  the  follow- 
ing both  morning  and  night :  one  pound  each  of  low  grade  flour  or  middlings, 
corn  meal  and  bran,  15  percent  each  of  beef  scrap  and  vegetables  or  green  feed, 
also  some  grit.  When  laying  heavily,  feed  the  following  at  noon :  one  quart  of 
mixed  wheat  and  corn  to  every  thirty  ducks.  Feed  these  rations  throughout  the 
year  to  any  ducks  kept  principally  for  egg  production.  Thirty  laying  Pekin 
ducks  will  eat  about  ten  quarts  dampened  mash  each  meal. 

A  good  laying  ration  is  as  follows :  two  parts  bran,  one  part  corn  meal,  one 
part  wheat  middlings  or  low  grade  flour,  10  percent  alfalfa  or  clover  and  5  per- 
cent beef  scrap. 

Give  the  layers  the  following:  three  parts  (by  measure)  wheat  bran,  two 
parts  of  Indian  corn  meal,  one  part  each  of  low  grade  flour  and  beef  scrap. 
Salt  this  slightly  and  dampen  to  a  crumbly  mass. 

A  good  ration  is  as  follows:  Five  measures  each  of  bran  and  corn  chop, 
two  measures  middlings,  \l/2  measures  beef  scrap,  three  measures  each  of  cut 
green  stuff  and  boiled  vegetables,  and  5  percent  sand. 

Preparing  for  Market. 

How  to  Kill. — To  kill  ducks  stun  them  with  a  sharp  blow  on  the  head 
and  then  stick  them  through  the  throat  or  just  back  of  the  eye  with  a  knife 
which  has  a  narrow  blade.  To  make  them  easier  to  handle  run  a  hook  in  the 
mouth  and  out  through  the  nostril. 

When  to  Kill — Ducks  should  be  killed  just  before  the  pinfeathers  start 
or  when  about  ten  weeks  old  to  make  the  best  appearance.  Pin  feathers  make 
a  bird  look  coarse  and  unsightly. 

How  to  Tell  Condition. — The  condition  of  ducks  can  be  judged  best  by  the 
amount  of  flesh  on  their  backs. 

Picking — Steam  Picking  Saves  Artificial  Drying. — Pull  tail  and  wing 
feathers  and  throw  them  away  before  steaming  the  ducks.  Six  or  eight  ducks 
which  have  been  stuck  and  bled  can  be  steamed  at  a  time.  Hang  them  on 
hooks  in  the  top  of  a  barrel  which  is  airtight  and  steam  them  from  one-half 
to  two  minutes — until  the  feathers  come  off  easily.  Then  pluck. 

Removing  Down. — The  down  can  be  removed  very  easily  by  sprinkling 
powdered  rosin  over  the  duck's  body  and  dipping  the  bird  in  hot  water.  This 
melts  the  rosin  so  that  the  down  and  rosin  can  be  rubbed  off  easily  with  the 
hand  and  leave  the  skin  clean. 

Plumping. — As  soon  as  the  feathers  are  off,  no  matter  whether  they  are 
removed  by  steaming  as  given  above  or  by  scalding  or  dry  picking,  they  should 
be  put  in  cold  water  to  remove  the  animal  heat  and  harden  the  flesh. 

Worth  Remembering. — When  but  a  few  ducks  are  raised,  they  should 
be  sold  to  local  trade.  Good  money  can  be  made  from  ducks  sold  in  this  way. 


POULTRY  RAISING— DUCKS  893 

If  the  fanner  wants  to  raise  them  to  ship  away,  he  must  generally  produce 
them  by  the  thousands  and  do  business  on  a  large  enough  scale  to  warrant  the 
outlay  of  a  great  deal  of  time  and  capital. 

Valuable  "Don'ts"  in  Caring  for  and  Feeding  Ducks. 

Don't  feed  any  old  time.     Have  regular  hours  for  feeding. 

Don't  overfeed,  and  keep  on  grass  range  if  possible. 

Don't  let  the  ducks  be  without  plenty  of  oyster  shells,  charcoal,  grit,  sand 
and  drinking  water. 

Don't  change  the  feed  through  the  laying  season. 

Don't  make  the  mash  too  wet.     Dry  crumbly  mash  is  best. 

Don't  let  the  ducks  sleep  outside  on  damp,  cold  ground. 

Don't  allow  the  ducks  to  make  the  ground  sloppy  around  the  drinking 
fountain. 

Don't  keep  more  than  thirty  ducks  in  one  flock. 

Don't  give  the  ducks  drinking  water  in  shallow  vessels. 

Don't  yard  ducks  and  other  poultry  together. 

Don't  use  poor  beef  scrap  for  feeding  and  don't  feed  too  much. 

Don't  feed  ducks  in  pans.    Feed  in  long  troughs. 

Don't  feed  so  much  mash  that  it  is  not  all  eaten  and  becomes  sour. 


TREATMENT  FOR  DISEASES  OF  DUCKS. 

Introduction. 

Ducks  are  generally  strong  and  free  from  disease.  However,  they  are 
sometimes  troubled  by  some  of  the  same  diseases  that  infect  chickens.  The 
symptoms  and  treatments  of  these  diseases  are  generally  the  same. 

Aspergillosis. — (See  "Chicken  Department.") 

Catarrh. — (See  "Chicken  Department.") 

Congestion  of  Lungs. — (See  "Chicken  Department.") 

Cholera. — (See  "Chicken  Department.") 

Diphtheria. — (See  "Chicken  Department.") 

Sunstroke. 

Too  much  exposure  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
Symptoms. — Reeling  and  tottering  over  as  if  in  a  fit. 
Treatment. — Remove  the  cause.    Take  tJie  duckling  out  of  the  sun. 
Caution :   Do  not  allow  ducklings  in  the  direct  rays  of  the  noon-day  sun. 
Many  are  killed  this  way. 

Worms. — (See  "Chicken  Department.") 


394 


GEESE. 


Varieties.— Gray  Toulouse,  White  Embden,  Gray  African,  White  Chinese. 
Brown  Chinese,  Canadian  or  Gray  Wild  and  Colored  Egyptian. 

WEIGHTS  IN  POUNDS. 


Old 
Gander 

Young 
Gander 

Old 
Goose 

Young 
Goose 

Toulouse  

20 

18 

18 

l"i 

Embden  

20 

18 

18 

ifi 

African  

20 

16 

18 

14 

Brown  and  White  Chinese  

12 

10 

10 

8 

Canadian  

12 

10 

10 

8 

Egyptian  

10 

g 

g 

6 

Toulouse  Geese. — This  variety  is  bred  in  large  numbers  by  farmers  and 
is  undoubtedly  the  most  popular  in  America.  They  are  not  considered  to  be 
the  best  market  geese,  however,  as  their  flesh  is  somewhat  flabby  and  coarse. 
They  make  heavy  weights  on  coarse  feed  but  are  late  in  maturing.  Their 
late  maturity  gains  the  title  for  them  of  the  Christmas  goose,  They  are  just 
about  ready  for  market  at  Christmas  time.  The  females  of  this  variety  are 
rather  good  layers,  laying  about  forty  eggs  a  season.  The  sexes  are  the  same 
color — grayish  on  the  breast  and  above,  running  to  white  under  the  body  and 
in  the  rear. 

Embden. — The  Embdens  are  probably  second  in  popularity  in  this 
country.  They  are  about  the  same  size  as  the  Toulouse  but  their  flesh  is 
better  for  table  use.  They  are  practical  birds  for  farmers,  paying  well  for 
their  keeping.  The  females  are  very  good  layers  and  setters.  They  do  not 
lay  as  many  eggs  as  the  Toulouse  geese  but  they  are  persistent  setters. 
Their  eggs  are  very  large  and  white  and  have  a  rough,  thick  shell.  The 
young  of  this  variety  are  quick  to  mature.  The  male  and. female  are  both 
white. 

African. — This  breed  is  considered  by  many  the  most  profitable  to  raise. 
They  grow  heaviest  in  the  shortest  time,  as  they  will  weigh  from  8  to  10 
pounds  when  only  ten  weeks  old.  The  flesh  is  splendid  for  table  purposes 
as  it  is  highly  flavored  and  fine.  The  females  are  excellent  layers,  averaging 
about  forty  eggs  a  season.  These  geese  are  light  and  dark  gray.  The  neck 
plumage  is  light  gray  with  a  dark  gray  stripe  running  from  the  head  to  the 
body.  The  back  is  dark  gray  blending  into  light  gray  under  the  body.  The 
tail  and  wings  are  dark  gray.  Considering  the  time  and  labor  spent  in 
raising  them,  this  breed  is  a  most  profitable  one  to  keep. 

395 


396  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Chinese. — This  is  a  practical  variety  for  those  who  raise  a  limited  num- 
ber of  geese.  They  are  the  smallest,  also  the  noisiest  of  any  variety.  The 
females  are  excellent  layers,  averaging  from  fifty  to  sixty  eggs  a  season. 
They  can,  no  doubt,  be  bred  up  to  become  paying  for  their  eggs  alone.  The 
young  mature  early  and  are  quite  hardy.  The  flesh  is  of  the  finest  quality, 
being  decidedly  superior  to  other  geese. 

The  Gray  Chinese  are  the  same  color  in  both  sexes,  being  a  brownish 
gray  on  the  upper  parts  and  running  into  a  lighter  shade  on  the  lower  parts 
of  the  body.  Like  the  Africans,  they  have  a  knob  at  the  junction  of  the  bill 
and  skull.  The  Gray  Chinese  are  smaller  and  more  brown  than  the  African. 
The  White  Chinese  are  pure  white. 

Canadian. — These  are  the  wild  geese  that  are  so  common  to  the  country. 
They  are  among  the  best  known  of  our  domestic  geese  although  more  wild 
and  harder  to  confine.  They  cannot  be  held  in  check  without  removing  the 
outer  joint  of  the  wing.  These  birds  are  hardy  and  easy  to  rear.  They  are 
a  fine  table  fowl.  The  females  are  good  layers.  This  breed  can  be  told  by  its 
black  head  and  neck  and  the  white  stripe  nearly  covering  its  feet.  The  back 
is  dark  gray,  breast  light  gray,  becoming  darker  as  it  nears  the  legs,  the 
plumage  from  the  legs  to  th.i  tail  is  white. 

Egyptian  Geese. — This  is  purely  an  ornamental  variety  kept  for  show 
purposes.  They  are  the  bantams  of  the  goose  tribe.  The  males  are  very 
quarrelsome.  Two  can  seldom  be  kept  in  the  same  pen  as  they  will  fight  to 
death.  Their  color  is  chestnut,  gray,  buff  and  black.  There  are  but  few  of 
them  in  the  country. 

Management  of  Geese. 

The  conditions  necessary  for  the  successful  raising  of  geese  are  almost 
entirely  different  from  those  necessary  for  successful  duck  raising.  Geese 
require  a  much  larger  space  than  ducks.  They  need  free  range  and  water. 
There  are  many  places  on  the  farm  that  are  useless  for  cultivation  that  could 
be  turned  into  profitable  runs  for  them.  They  will  thrive  on  farms  that  have 
branches,  streams,  or  unused  springs  on  them.  Farmers  who  profit  by  this 
add  considerably  to  their  annual  incomes.  Geese  need  very  little  care  and 
attention  in  comparison  with  other  poultry.  If  they  have  plenty  of  pasture 
on  the  farm  and  water,  they  will  take  care  of  themselves. 

Water. — When  running  water  is  not  available,  geese  should  be  watered 
in  dishes  deep  enough  for  them  to  wash  out  their  nostrils.  This  prevents 
the  insects  and  dirt  from  bothering  them  too  much. 

Housing. — All  that  is  necessary  in  the  way  of  houses  is  protection  from 
wind  and  storms.  Cold  weather  does  not  ever  inconvenience  geese  when  they 
have  a  dry,  well  ventilated  place  to  rest.  Any  shed-like  structure  is  sufficient 
that  is  about  six  feet  high  in  front  and  three  feet  high  in  the  rear,  built  any 
width  and  length  that  is  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  birds.  Each  mem- 
ber of  the  flock  should  have  about  ten  square  feet  of  floor  space.  It  is  ad- 
visable not  to  have  a  shed  over  twelve  feet  wide  as  it  is  liable  to  be  damp. 
The  house  may  be  built  of  cheap  lumber  and  covered  with  tar  paper,  or  made 


POULTRY   RAISING— GEESE  3<J7 

more  durable  by  covering  with  a  prepared  roofing  paper.  The  front  of  the 
shed  can  be  closed  with  heavy  cotton  cloth  curtains.  The  curtains  may  be 
fastened  on  frames  to  be  swung  open  like  hinged  doors,  or  swung  up  and 
fastened  with  a  hook.  The  main  objection  to  the  latter  method  is  that  when 
the  curtains  are  in  a  horizontal  position  they  catch  dust.  This  makes  them 
less  sanitary  and  less  able  to  admit  air  and  light.  These  curtains  may  be 
left  open  continually  in  fair  weather  and  closed  only  during  the  night  in 
extremely  cold  weather  or  during  storms  that  would  beat  through  the  open- 
ings and  make  the  floor  damp  and  uncomfortable. 

Mating  and  Setting. 

Number  of  Geese  to  Gander. — Mate  from  two  to  four  geese  with  one 
gander. 

Mating. — The  breeding  stock  should  be  at  least  two  years  old  and  well 
matured.  Geese  live  to  a  great  age  and  frequently  remain  vigorous  and  lay  a 
fair  number  of  fertile  eggs  when  thirty  years  of  age.  Of  course,  the  ganders  are 
not  reliable  after  they  are  about  eight  years  old.  When  convenient,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  seclude  each  mating  a  week  or  two  just  at  the  beginning  of  the  breeding 
season.  The  time  will  readily  be  determined  by  the  actions  and  cries  of  the  birds. 
As  soon  as  the  birds  are  rightly  mated  they  may  be  permitted  to  run  together  as 
they  will  not  mix  nor  mate  over  again.  When  a  good  mating  is  secured,  it  should 
be  continued  for  six  or  seven  years ;  i.  e.,  as  long  as  the  -birds  get  results.  Some 
breeders  prefer  old  birds  to  young  ones' but  we  believe  the  characteristics  of  the 
individual  are  more  important  than  the  age. 

The  season  for  breeding  begins  about  February,  but  some  geese  will  begin 
laying  earlier,  say  in  December,  then  stop,  and  begin  once  more  in  February. 
No  feed  is  necessary  outside  of  what  they  pick  up  off  the  range  until  cold 
weather  destroys  this  source  of  food.  Laying  geese  must  not  be  allowed  to  get 
too  fat  as  it  injures  the  fertility  of  the  eggs. 

Setting. — Geese  rniake  their  own  nests  from  the  litter  and  straw  on  the 
floor  of  their  house.  They  will  lay  from  ten  to  twenty  eggs  before  they  become 
broody.  Just  as  soon  as  a  goose  shows  broodiness  or  an  inclination  to  set,  she 
should  be  removed  and  placed  in  a  small  coop  or  dark  box,  and  kept  there  for 
two  or  three  days  with  plenty  of  water  to  drink  but  no  food.  This  will  break 
her  up  and  she  can  be  put  back  into  the  yards  to  begin  another  laying  of  eggs. 
One  should  set  the  first  and  second  laying  of  eggs  under  hens,  giving  four  or  five 
eggs  to  a  hen.  When  the  goose  has  laid  the  second  laying  of  eggs,  she  will  have 
to  be  confined  and  broken  of  her  broodiness  again,  then  she  will  lay  a  third  lot. 
She  should  be  permitted  to  set  on  the  third  laying  herself  instead  of  putting  them 
under  hens. 

Time  for  Incubation. — Thirty  days  are  required  for  the  incubation  of 
goose  eggs. 

Feeding  Breeders. — When  there  is  a  scarcity  of  food  in  the  fall  or  when 
the  geese  are  laying,  they  should  be  fed.  We  give  the  following  mixtures  that 
have  proved  very  satisfactory : 

Equal  parts,  by  measure,  of  corn  meal,  middlings  and  bran.    To  this  add  5% 


398  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

of  beef  scraps,  and  feed  10%  of  the  bulk  of  the  whole  ration  of  steamed  clover, 
green  feeds,  and  cooked  vegetables.  Give  a  light  feed  of  this  ration  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  at  night  feed  cracked  corn. 

Morning  and  night  feed  what  oats  and  corn  the  geese  will  eat  up  clean.  At 
noon  give  vegetable  food  such  as  alfalfa,  steamed  clover,  apple  parings,  etc.  Let 
them  to  run  in  all  kinds  of  weather. 

In  the  morning  feed  equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  shorts,  mixed  with  10% 
of  beef  scraps  to  a  crumbly  state.  Feed  only  what  they  will  eat  up  quickly.  In 
the  afternoon  feed  whole  grain,  barley,  corn  and  oats.  Put  feed  in  small  boxes. 
Also  give  vegetable  feeds  and  plenty  of  good  clean  water  and  oyster  shell. 

By  measure :  2  parts  shorts,  4  parts  each  of  bran  and  cut  clover  and  1  part 
corn  meal.  Dampen  with  water  or  skimmed  milk  to  make  a  crumbly  mass.  Fre- 
quently add  cooked  vegetables  and  ground  meat  to  this  ration.  Feed  morning  and 
evening.  At  noon  give  a  light  whole  corn  feed.  Keep  oyster  shell  and  grit  before 
them  continually. 

Care  of  Goslings. — The  hen  and  goslings  should  not  be  disturbed  for 
about  twenty-four  hours  after  the  young  birds  are  hatched.  It  is  sometimes  ad- 
visable to  remove  all  but  two  or  three  of  the  little  fellows  as  soon  as  they  dry 
off.  Some  hens  are  clumsy  and  trample  them  to  death  if  left  on  the  nest  with 
them.  If  the  birds  are  removed,  they  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  place.  This 
gives  them  time  to  dry  off.  After  they  are  thoroughly  dry  the  hen  and  brood 
should  be  put  in  a  large,  roomy  coop  for  four  or  five  days.  When  the  goslings 
are  about  five  days  old  they  can  shift  for  themselves  in  good  weather.  Before 
feathering,  they  are  easily  chilled  and  should  be  looked  after  during  cold  rains. 
When  one  is  found  chilled  or  cast  on  his  back  in  the  mud,  he  should  be  put 
into  a  warm  place  and  kept  until  he  recovers. 

Feeds  for  Growing  Goslings. 

One-third  shorts,  two-thirds  corn  meal  and  10%  beef  scrap.  Moisten  with 
water  until  crumbly  and  give  them  only  what  they  will  eat  up  clean  three  times 
daily  for  about  a  month. 

For  about  the  first  forty-eight  hours  give  nothing  but  tender  grass,  then  feed 
every  two  or  three  hours  two-thirds  shorts  and  one-third  corn  meal.  Wet 
up  and  then  squeeze  practically  dry.  Do  not  give  sloppy  food  and  feed  spar- 
ingly. The  second  week  give  cracked  corn  and  a  run  of  grass. 

Feed  all  the  grass  or  lettuce  leaves  they  will  eat.  At  first  give  a  mixture  of 
bran  and  corn  meal  but  feed  whole  grain  later.  Let  the  chief  feed  be  grass  or 
other  green  food  and  let  them  have  plenty  of  water  at  all  times. 

As  soon  as  the  goslings  are  dry  put  them  in  brooders.  After  they  are  twenty- 
four  hours  old,  feed  them  four  times  a  day:  1  part  each  (by  measure)  of  shorts, 
rolled  oats,  bran,  and  corn  meal,  blood  meal,  a  teaspoonful  to  a  quart  of  food. 
Dampen  with  water  or  skimmed  milk  until  crumbly.  Have  grit,  water  and  green 
food  constantly  before  them.  Give  water  in  such  a  way  they  cannot  get  into  it. 
Reduce  brooder  heat  from  90  degrees  until  they  need  no  heat  at  all  then  remove 
them  to  other  quarters  and  feed  three  times  a  day :  1  part  each  (by  measure) 
of  rolled  oats,  bran  and  shorts,  blood  meal,  a  tablespoonful  to  a  quart  of  feed. 


POULTRY   RAISING— GEESE  399 

Add  cooked  vegetables  and  corn  meal  occasionally.  Mix  with  skimmed  milk 
or  water  into  a  crumbly  mass.  Have  water  and  grit  before  them.  Do  not 
allow  the  goslings  in  water  until  they  are  full  feathered. 

Start  the  goslings  on  fresh,  green  grass,  then  gradually  add  a  slightly 
moistened  corn  meal  to  the  ration.  It  is  also  good  to  mix  a  little  sand  and 
charcoal  with  the  corn  meal.  Feed  this  three  times  daily  for  about  two  days, 
then  change  to  the  following  ration :  equal  parts  (by  measure)  of  middlings, 
bran,  and  steamed  cut  clover  or  cooked  vegetables.  Feed  this  three  times 
daily  until  the  birds  are  eight  weeks  old  then  fatten  for  market. 

After  the  first  twenty-four  hours,  give  the  goslings  fresh,  tender  grass 
to  eat  and  water  to  drink.  In  a  couple  of  days  gradually  begin  feeding  them 
finely  cracked  corn,  well  scalded,  and  permit  them  to  run  on  tender  grass.  If  they 
are  confined,  move  their  pen  to  a  fresh  grass  spot  every  day.  Feed  them  often. 
During  stormy  weather  they  must  have  green  feed,  such  as  tender  grass,  finely 
cut  green  oats,  rye,  or  clover,  given  them.  Protect  them  from  rains  until  their 
feathers  are  grown.  After  that  they  need  only  come  home  to  get  grain  food 
each  night,  when  necessary. 

Fattening  Geese. 

When  geese  are  to  be  fattened  they  should  be  put  in  a  pen  small  enough 
to  keep  them  from  running  around  too  much.  They  should  be  allowed  from 
eight  to  fourteen  square  feet  apiece.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  frighten  or 
disturb  them.  If  geese  are  irritated  in  the  least  they  will  not  get  fat,  but  instead 
will  grow  another  crop  of  feathers.  When  the  tips  of  the  wings  reach  the  tail  or 
when  about  ten  weeks  old,  they  will  be  ready  for  market,  weighing  from  eight  to 
ten  pounds.  It  takes  about  two  weeks  to  fatten  young  geese. 

Fattening  Rations. 

Mix  corn  meal  to  a  dry  crumbly  state  and  add  twenty  percent  of  this  bulk 
of  beef  scrap.  Salt  slightly.  Feed  all  the  geese  will  eat  clean,  three  times 
daily.  During  the  middle  of"  the  day  the  birds  may  receive  some  whole  grain, 
especially  if  it  is  soaked. 

Famous  Watertown  Method  of  Fattening.— This  method  is  given  its 
name  because  it  is  practiced  mainly  by  the  farmers  around  Watertown,  Wis. 
It  is  a  new  plan  of  fattening  for  this  country,  being  started  by  some  German 
farmers,  but  it  is  very  successful  and  we  feel  that  it  should  be  taken  to  other 
farmers  that  they  may  reap  its  benefits.  A  demand  for  the  geese,  fattened  in 
this  way,  can  soon  be  created  and  they  bring  a  high  price.  The  method 
follows : 

The  geese  are  fed  and  kept  growing  fast  until  about  Thanksgiving  time, 
when  they  are  confined  and  the  process  of  fattening  begun.  As  stated  above, 
the  birds  that  have  been  running  at  liberty  are  naturally  shy  and  timid,  and 
must  be  handled  cautiously.  The  feeder  must  reconcile  them  to  his  presence. 
Strangers  should  not  be  permitted  around  their  pens  and  everything  should  be 
done  to  gain  their  confidence.  Feeding  is  begun  gradually  at  first,  the  geese 
being  fed  only  a  little,  three  times  a  day.  The  number  of  meals  and  the 


400  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

amount  of  feed  are  both  gradually  increased  until  the  birds  are  really  stuffed 
every  four  hours.  It  takes  about  ten  days  for  full  feed  to  be  reached  after 
the  process  is  begun. 

How  to  Make  Feed. — A  cooked  feed  is  given  and  is  made  as  follows: 
Two  parts  of  ground  and  sifted  barley  or  oats,  one  part  wheat  flour  and 
one  part  sifted  corn  meal  are  well  mixed  together,  moistened  with  water, 
and  made  into  a  stiff  dough.  This  is  worked  into  noodles  about  the  size 
of  small  pork  sausages.  The  dough  may  be  run  through  a  sausage  mill  and  cut 
into  the  proper  length  as  it  comes  out.  The  ends  are  moulded  into  a  dull  point 
with  the  fingers.  This  process  makes  noodles  that  are  about  three  inches  in 
length  and  one  inch  thick.  The  noodles  can  either  be  boiled  or  baked,  pref- 
erably boiled.  The  noodles  are  put  into  a  wire  basket  made  from  the  same 
kind  of  wire  that  is  used  in  ash  sifters.  The  basket  is  just  the  right  size 
to  fit  into  a  wash  boiler.  It  is  fastened  a  little  off  the  bottom  to  prevent 
burning.  When  the  noodles  are  thoroughly  cooked  they  rise  to  the  surface. 
Then  the  basket  is  taken  out  and  immersed  in  cold  water.  This  prevents 
them  from  clinging  together.  After  being  treated  in  this  manner  they  can 
be  heaped  into  a  basket  with  no  danger  of  their  losing  shape  or  sticking 
together. 

How  to  Feed. — The  goose  to  be  fed  should  be  confined  in  a  small  place 
off  the  pen.  The  feeder  can  sit  on  a  stool  with  a  pail  of  water  and  basket 
of  noodles  near  him.  He  then  dips  a  noodle  in  water,  opens  the  bird's  mouth 
and  slips  it  in.  The  goose  will  readily  swallow  a  few  of  them  of  its  own  accord, 
then  the  feeder  gently  pushes  enough  of  them  down  its  throat  to  stuff  it  full. 
When  the  bird  is  released  it  immediately  drinks  its  fill  of  water,  which  should 
always  be  fresh.  Each  bird  is  stuffed  in  this  way  and  then  they  are  left  undis- 
turbed until  the  next  feeding  time.  If  at  any  time  a  goose  has  not  digested  all 
the  food  it  was  given  before,  it  is  not  fed  so  much.  If  a  bird  goes  off  its 
feed,  it  must  be  put  on  the  range  for  a  couple  of  days.  If  it  shows  signs  of 
indigestion,  a  feed  or  so  should  be  skipped.  Some  feeders  think  it  wise  to  re- 
duce the  feed  once  in  a  while,  after  they  are  on  full  feed,  and  then  gradually 
bring  them  back.  They  will" not  become  "stale"  when  treated  this  way. 

This  is  a  very  simple  method  and  one  can  soon  learn  to  stuff  a- goose  very 
quickly.  It  is  practiced  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  there  is  practically  nothing 
else  to  do  on  the  farm  and  it  will  produce  paying  returns.  It  is  a  method 
that  is  fast  gaining  ground  where  its  success  is  known. 

Bran,  Shorts,  Scraps,  Oil  Meal  and  Corn  Meal. — Keep  confined  closely 
and  feed :  two  parts  (by  measure)  of  bran,  one  part  each  of  shorts,  beef  scraps, 
oil  meal  and  corn  meal,  moistened  with  sufficient  water  to  make  it  crumble. 
Feed  three  times  daily.  Give  whole  corn  once  in  a  while.  Grit,  green  food,  and 
water  should  be  constantly  before  them. — F.  D.  Fowler,  Carlinville,  111. 

Corn  Meal,  Ground  Oats,  Middlings  and  Barley. — Feed  one-half  corn 
meal,  one-fourth  ground  oats,  and  the  remainder  wheat  middlings  and  barley. 
Mix  together  thoroughly  and  dampen  with  scalding  milk  or  water.  Feed  as 
much  of  this  ration  as  they  will  eat  up  clean  four  or  five  times  daily.  Give 
plenty  of  water. — Mrs.  M.  Swartsley,  Columbus,  Neb. 


POULTRY   RAISING— GEESE  401 

Alfalfa. — Turn  geese  into  a  field  of  alfalfa  when  old  enough  to  fatten. 
and  they  will  become  very  fat  and  heavy. — M.  B.  Caldwell,  Broughton,  Kas. 

Killing  and  Dressing. — Geese  are  killed  by  sticking  in  the  throat  the 
same  as  ducks,  then  they  are  dry  picked.  About  two  inches  of  feathers  should 
be  left  on  the  neck  and  on  the  wings  at  the  first  joint.  After  the  feathers  are 
taken  off  the  down  is  wiped  off  by  brushing  the  body  with  the  hand  moistened 
in  water.  The  birds  should  be  plumped  in  cold  water  for  about  an  hour  after 
they  are  picked.  However,  they  should  not  be  left  in  the  water  too  long  or 
they  will  become  bleached  and  water-soaked.  They  are  then  ready  for 
market. 

Marketing. 

It  is  better  to  market  young  geese  some  time  in  October.  If  possible  they 
should  be  marketed  before  it  turns  cold  weather  because  the  cold  makes  them 
much  harder  to  dress.  The  feathers  are  harder  to  pull,  and  one  is  more 
liable  to  tear  the  flesh. 


TREATMENT  FOR  DISEASES  OF  GEESE. 


Introduction. 

The  same  is  true  of  geese  as  of  ducks,  if  they  are  given  free  range  and  a 
dry,  clean  coop  in  which  to  retreat  when  necessary  they  are  seldom  troubled 
by  any  disease.  The  diseases  which  do  overtake  them  have  practically  the 
same  symptoms  and  require  the  same  treatments  as  those  of  chickens. 

Aspergillosis. — (See  Chicken  Department). 
Cholera. — (See  Chicken  Department). 
Congestion  of  Lungs. — (See  Chicken  Department). 
Diphtheria. — (See  Chicken  Department). 
Worms. — (See  Chicken  Department). 


402, 


GENERAL   LIVE   STOCK    INFORMATION 

National  Live  Stock  Breeders'  Associations. 

Stockmen  and  others  interested  in  the  production  of  live  stock  may  secure  booklets  and  circulars 
criptive  of  the  various  breeds  by  applying  to  the  secretaries  of  the  respective  associations: 

CATTLE 


Association. 


Amercian  Aberdeen-Angus  Breeders'  Association. 

Ayrshire  Breeders'  Association 

Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association 

American  Devon  Cattle  Club 

American  Galloway  Breeders'  Association 

American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club 

American  Hereford  Cattle  Breeders'  Association . 

Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America 

American  Jersey  Cattle  Club 

Polled  Durham  Breeders'  Association 

Red  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  America 

America  Shorthorn  Breeders'  Association .  . 


Secretary. 

Address. 

Charles  Gray  

Chicago  111 

C.  W.  Winslow.  .  .  . 

Brandon  Vt» 

Ira  Inman  

Beloit  Wis 

L.  P.  Sisson  

Charlottesville  Va 

Robert  W.  Brown  .  . 
Wm.  H.  Caldwell.... 
R.  J.  Kinzer  

Chicago,  111. 
Peterboro,  N.  H. 
Kansas  City  Mo 

F.  L.  Houghton  .  .  . 

Brattleboro  Vt 

R.  M.  Gow  
J.  H.  Martz  

NewY9rk,  N.  Y. 
Greenville  Ohio 

H.  A.  Martin  .  .  . 

Gotham  Wis 

Rov  G.  Groves  .  . 

Chicaeo.  111. 

HORSES 


American  Association  of  Importers  and  Breeders 
of  Belgian  Draft  Horses  

J  D.  Conner  Jr 

W^abash  Ind 

American  Clydesdale  Association  

R.  B.  OgUvie 

Chicago  111 

American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  Association  .    .  . 
Percheron  Society  of  America  

Roger  H.  Lillard.  .  .  . 
Wayne  Dinsmore 

Lawrenceburg,  Ky. 
Chicago  111 

American  Morgan  Register  Association  

T.  E.  'Boyce 

Middlebury  Vt 

American  Shetland  Pony  Club  

Miss  Julia  M  Wade 

LaFayette  Ind 

American  Hackney  Horse  Society  

Gurney  C  Geel 

Hempstead     Long 

American  Shire  Horse  Association  

Charles  Burgess,  Sr 

Island,  N.  Y. 
Wenona,  111. 

German  Coach  Horse  Association  of  America  .... 

J.  Crouch  

LaFayette,  Ind. 

American  Suffolk  Horse  Association.  . 

Alex.  Galbraith.  .  . 

DeKalb.  111. 

SHEEP 


American  Cheviot  Sheep  Society  

F.  E.  Dawley  

Fayetteville,  N.  Y. 

American  Cotswold  Registry  Association  

F.  W.  Harding  

Waukesha,  Wis. 

Continental  Dorset  Club  .  .        

J.  E.  Wing  

Mechanicsburg,  O. 

American  Hampshire  Breeders'  Association  

Comfort  A.  Tyler.  .  .  . 

Coldwater,  Mich. 

American  Leicester  Breeders'  Association  

A.  J.  Temple  

Cameron,  111. 

American  Oxford  Down  Record  Association 

W.  A.  Shafer. 

Hamilton,  Ohio. 

American  Shropshire  Registry  Association  

Miss  Julia  M.  Wade  . 

LaFayette,  Ind. 

\merican  Southdown  Breeders'  Association  .... 

Frank  S.  Springer  .  .  . 

Springfield,  111. 

SWINE 


American  Berkshire  Association  

Frank  S.  Springer  .  .  . 
J.  C.  Hiles  

Springfield,  111. 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Thorntown,  Ind. 
Peoria,  111. 
Peoria,  111. 
Chicago,  111. 
Winchester,  Ind. 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
Whitebear  Lake, 
Minn. 

O  I  C  Swine  Breeders'  Association. 

American  Duroc-Jersey  Swine  Breeders'  Association 
National  Duroc-Jersey  Record  Association           .  . 

T.  B.  Pearson     . 

J.  R.  Pfander  

American  Hampshire  Swine  Record  Association  .  . 
American  Poland-China>  Record  Association. 

E.  C.  Stone 

W.  M.  McFadden  .  .  . 
A.  M.  Brown    . 

National  Poland-China  Record  Company.  

E.  N.  Ball  

American  Yorkshire  Club                

Harry  G.  Krum  

403 


404  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

National  and  State  Agricultural  Departments  and  Institutions. 

Bulletins  and  Circulars  of  Information  pertaining  to  live  stock  and  other 
agricultural  topics  can  be  secured  from  the  national  departments  and  from  one's 
State  Experiment  Station  that  are  helpful  and  the  following  list  of  departments 

and  stations  is  submitted: 

t 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Scientific  Bureaus. 

Weather  Bureau — C.  F.  Marvin,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry — A.  D.  Melvin,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry — W.  A.  Taylor,  Chief. 

Forest  Service — H.  S.  Graves,  Forester. 

Bureau  of  Soils — Milton  Whitney,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Chemistry — C.  L.  Alsberg,  Chief, 

Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates — L.  M.  Estabrook,  Statistician. 

Bureau  of  Entomology — L.  O.  Howard,  Entomologist. 

Bureau  of  Biological  Survey — E.  W.  Nelson,  Chief. 

Office  of  Public  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering — L.  W.  Page,  Director. 

Office  of  Markets  and  Rural  Organizations — C.  J.  Brand,  Chief. 


States  Relations  Service — A.  C.  True,  Director. 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations — E.  W.  Allen,  Chief. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

Alabama— College  Station,  Auburn,  J.  F.  Duggar1 ;  Canebrake  Station,  Union- 
town,  L.  H.  Moore1 ;  Tuskegee  Station,  Tuskegee  Institute,  G.  W.  Carver.1 

Alaska — Sitka ;  C.  C.  Georgeson.2 

Arizona — Tucson ;  R.  H.  Forbes.1 

Arkansas — Fayetteville ;  M.  Nelson.1 

Calif ornia— Berkeley ;  T.  F.  Hunt.1 

Colorado — Fort  Collins ;  C.  P.  Gillette.1 

Connecticut — State  Station,  New  Haven;  Storrs  Station,  Storrs;  E.  H. 
Jenkins.1 

Delaware — Newark:  H.  Hayward.1 

Florida— Gainesville :  P.  H.  Rolfs.1 

Georgia — Experiment :  J.  D.  Price.1 

Guam — Island  of  Guam:  C.  W.  Edwards.3 

Hawaii — Federal  Station:  Honolulu;  J.  M.  Westgate.2  Sugar  Planters' 
Station:  Honolulu;  H.  P.  Agee.1 

Idaho — Moscow :  J.  S.  Jones.1 

Illinois — Urbana:  E.  Davenport.1 

Indiana — La  Fayette:  A.  Goss.1 

Iowa — Ames:  C.  F.  Curtiss.1 

Kansas — Manhattan :  W-  M.  Jardine.1 

Kentucky — Lexington :  A.  M.  Peter.4 


GENERAL  LIVE 'STOCK   INFORMATION  405 

Louisiana — State  Station:  I'.aton  K«>ugc:  Sugar  Station:  Audnhnn  Park, 
New  Orleans;  North  La.  Station:  Calhoun  ;  \Y.  R.  Dodson.1 

Maine — Orono:  C.  D.  Woods.1 

Maryland — College  Park:  II.  J.  Patterson.1 

Massachusetts— Amherst:  W.  P.  Brooks.1 

Michigan — East  Lansing:  R.  S.  Shaw.1 

Minnesota — University  Farm,  St.  Paul :  A.  F.  Woods.1 

Mississippi — Agricultural  College:  E.  R.  Lloyd.1 

Missouri— College  Station:  Columbia;  F.  B.  Mumford.1  Fruit  Station: 
Mountain  Grove ;  Paul  Evans.1 

Montana — Bozeman:  F.  B.  Linfield.1 

Nebraska — Lincoln:  E.  A.  Burnett.1 

Nevada — Reno:  S.  B.  Doten.1 

New  Hampshire — Durham :  J.  C.  Kendall.1 

New  Jersey — New  Brunswick:  J.  G.  Lipman.1 

New  Mexico — State  College:  Fabian  Garcia.1 

New  York — State  Station:  Geneva;  W.  H.  lordan.1  Cornell  Station: 
Ithaca;  A.  R.  Mann.4 

North  Carolina — College  Station  :  West  Raleigh  ;  State  Station :  Raleigh ;  B. 
W.  Kilgore.1 

North  Dakota — Agricultural  College :  T.  P.  Cooper.1 

Ohio — Wooster:  C.  E.  Thorne.1 

Oklahoma — Stillwater:  W.  L.  Carlyle.1 

Oregon — Corvallis :  A.  B.  Cordley.1 

Pennsylvania — State  College :  R.  L.  Walts.1  State  College :  Institute  of  Ani- 
mal Nutrition ;  H.  P.  Armsby.1 

Porto  Rico — Federal  Station :  Mayaguez ;  D.  W.  May.2  Insular  Station : 
Rio  Piedras ;  W.  V.  Tower.1 

Rhode  Island — Kingston :  B.  L.  Hartwell.1 

South  Carolina — Clemson  College:  C.  C.  Newman.4 

South  Dakota— Brookings :  J.  W.  Wilson.1 

Tennessee — Knoxville :  H.  A.  Morgan.1 

Texas — College  Station:  B.  Youngblood.1 

Utah — Logan:  F.  S.  Harris.1 

Vermont — Burlington':  J.  L.  Hills. 

Virginia — Blacksburg.:  A.  Wr.  Drinkard,  jr.1  Norfolk:  Truck  Station;  T.  C. 
Johnson.1 

Washington — 'Pullman:  I.  D.  Cardiff.1 

West  Virginia — Morgantown :  J.  L.  Coulter.1 

Wisconsin — Madison:  H.  L.  Russell.1 

Wyoming — Laramie:  H.  G.  Knight.1 

iDirector.      2Agronomist   in   charge.      SAnimal    husbandman  in   charge.      4Acting  director. 

Dominion  of  Canada — Department  of  Agriculture  and  Office  of  Experimental 
Farms,  Ottawa,  Canada. 


406  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

LIVE  STOCK  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Many  stockmen  enjoy  having  a  more  or  less  complete  library  of  books  treat- 
ing in  detail  and  at  length  the  numerous  subjects  and  phases  of  live  stock  hus- 
bandry. A  few  of  the  best  books  on  important  subjects  and  two  of  the  most 
generally  read  live  stock  periodicals  follow.  The  publishers  of  "The  Stock  Book" 
will  gladly  help  you  to  secure  them: 

"Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,"  Plumb. 
"Judging  Farm  Animals,"  Plumb. 
"Breeding  Farm  Animals,"  Mumford. 
"Feeds  and  Feeding,"  Henry  and  Morrison. 
"Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,"  Eckles. 
"Beef  Cattle  Production,"  Mumford. 
"Pork  Production,"  Day. 
"Sheep  Management,"  Kleinheinz. 
"Horse  Production,"  Gay. 

Live  Stock  Periodicals. 

"Breeder's  Gazette,"  Chicago,  111.  A  weekly  publication  devoted  to  all  classes 
of  live  stock. 

"Hoard's  Dairyman,"  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis.  A  weekly  journal  devoted  to 
dairy  farming. 


MISCELLANEOUS 

Normal  Temperatures. 

Horses  from  100  to  101  degrees  (Fahrenheit) ;  cattle  from  100  to  103 
degrees;  sheep  from  101  to  103  degrees;  hogs  from  102  to  104  degrees. 

In  diseases  a  rise  of  four  degrees  is  serious.  The  temperature  of  an  animal 
is  generally  taken  in  the  vulva  or  anus. 

Normal  Pulse  Beat. 

Horses  from  thirty  to  forty  beats  per  minute ;  cattle  from  forty  to  fifty  beats 
per  minute;  sheep  from  seventy  to  eighty  beats  per  minute;  hogs  from  seventy 
to  ninety  beats  per  minute. 

To  take  the  pulse  of  a  horse  stand  on  the  left  side  and  run  the  finger  gently 
along  the  lower  jaw  bone  until  you  feel  the  artery  just  at  the  front  edge  of  the 
large  muscles  at  the  side  of  the  jaw.  To  take  the  pulse  of  a  cow  stand  on  the  left 
side  but  reach  over  the  neck  and  feel  the  artery  on  the  right  side  of  the  jaw. 
The  pulse  of  sheep  is  generally  taken  on  the  inside  of  the  hind  leg. 

PEOPLE'S  TABLE  FOR  LIQUID  MEDICINES. 

Use  this  when  there  is  no  time  for  more  accurate  measurements. 

1  small  teaspoonful 60  small  drops Y±  tablespoonful. 

1  tablespoonful 240  small  drops 3  teaspoonf uls. 

1  dram 60  drops 1  scant  teaspoonful. 

1  ounce 2  tablespoonfuls 6  teaspoonf  uls. 

1  teacupful 16  tablespoonfuls 48  teaspoonfuls. 

1  minim 1  drop  (generally). 

1  grain 1  drop  (generally). 

1  pint 2  teacupfuls. 

1  wineglassful 3  heaping  tablespoonfuls. 

STOCK  FOODS  AND  CONDITION  POWDERS. 

Condition  Powder  for  Horses  or  Cattle. 

Black  Antimony   6  ounces 

Powdered  Sulphur   5  ounces 

Ground  Poplar  Bark 3  ounces 

Powdered  Resin   1  ounce 

Powdered  Alum   1  ounce 

Cumin  Seed ^  ounce 

Give  about  one  tablespoonful  mixed  well  with  the  feed  three  times  a  day. 

For  Horses. 

Sulphate  of  Iron,  powdered 4  ounces 

Nitrate  of  Potash,  powdered 2  ounces 

Ginger  Root,  powdered 2  ounces 

Gentian  Root,  powdered 2  ounces 

Nux  Vomica  Seed 2  ounces 

407 


408  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Another  Good  Powder. 

Sulphur 2  pounds 

Glauber's  Salts   1  pound 

Black  Antimony 8  ounces 

Powdered  Bloodroot  4  ounces 

Copperas,  powdered 8  ounces 

Resin    8  ounces 

Asafetida   4  ounces 

Saltpeter    8  ounces 

Mix  well  and  give  one  good  tablespoonful  in  grain  morning  and  evening. 

Stock  Foods. 

Oil  Cake 10  pounds 

Powdered  Licorice  Root 5  pounds 

Pulverized  Fenugreek  5  pounds  ^ 

Elm  Bark 4  pounds 

Salt 10  pounds 

Mix  well  and  give  two  good  tablespoonfuls  morning  and  night. 

Good  Milk  Producer  for  Cattle. 

Salt    10  pounds 

Powdered  Anise  Seed 10  pounds 

Bruised  Fennel 10  pounds 

Ground  Clover  5  pounds 

Cream  of  Tartar 1  pound 

Alum 1  pound 

Sublimed  Sulphur   1  pound 

Powdered  Chalk 1  pound 

Mix  well  and  give  each  cow  a  big  handful  each  morning  in  the  feed. 

A  Simple  Stock  Food. 

Common  Salt   1  pound 

Pulverized  Fenugreek   4  pounds 

Ground  Flaxseed 7  pounds 

Oil  Cake 5  pounds 

Powdered  Licorice  Root 4  pounds 

Stir  well  together.    Give  each  animal  two  heaping  tablespoonfuls  in  the 

morning  feed. 

Chick  Starter. 

Fine  Corn  Meal 15  pounds 

Middlings 15  pounds 

Corn  Gluten 9  pounds 

Bran,  Wheat   • 7  pounds 

Thick  Loppered  Milk 4  quarts 

Black  Pepper 1  ounce 

Charcoal 1  ounce 

Mix  these  together  in  a  tub  and  give  plenty,  as  long  as  it  is  eaten  clean  each 

meal. 


MISCELLANEOUS  100 

Egg  Producer. 

Coarse  Corn  Meal 0  pounds 

Middlings  or  Shorts 10  ]XHin<N 

Bran    7  pounds 

Ground  Oats 10  pounds 

Corn  Gluten    8  pounds 

Salt,  coarse  y2  pound 

Charcoal y2  pound 

Thick   Sour  Milk 3  quarts 

This  can  be  dampened  when  it  is  given  to  the  hens,  if  desired. 

Egg  Producer. 

Powdered  Bone,  Lime  or  Oyster  Shells 1  pound 

Powdered  Ginger 2  ounces 

Ground  Gentian   £  ounces 

Capsicum 1  ounce 

Sulphur 1  ounce 

This  should  be  well  mixed  and  one  teaspoonful  mixed  with  each  quart  of 

feed. 

USES  AND   DOSES   OF  OVER  FIFTY   STABLE  MEDICINES. 

Acetic  Acid. — Soak  warts  well  in  pure  acetic  acW  and  it  will  remove 
them. 

Aconite  (Tincture) .—Use  20  to  30  drops  for  cattle;  10  to  20  drops  for 
horses;  10  drops  for  sheep;  1  to  5  drops  for  pigs-  Good  for  inflammations  and 
fevers.  It  relieves  pain  when  applied  externally  in  small  amounts.  Do  not  give 
when  heart  is  weak.  It  is  poisonous. 

Aloes. — Use  2  to  3  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle ,  1*4  to  2  tablespoonfuls  for 
horses.  This  is  a  very  good  tonic. 

Alum. — Use  3  scant  teaspoonfuls  for  cattle;  1  scant  teaspoonful  for 
horses;  30  drops  for  sheep;  15  drops  for  pigs.  This  is  good  for  diarrhea,  and 
when  dissolved  in  water  is  fine  for  sore  mouth. 

Alum  (Burnt). — This  is  fine  to  shake  on  proud  flesh  or  old  sores. 

Ammonia  Water. — Use  2  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle;  1  tablespoonful  for 
horses ;  2  scant  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep ;  l/2  to  1  scant  teaspoonful  for  hogs.  Di- 
lute with  water.  Good  as  a  stimulant,  and  in  bloating,  indigestion  and  colic. 

Arnica,  Tincture. — Use  2  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle;  1  to  2  tablespoonfuls 
for  horses;  2  scant  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep;  l/2  scant  teaspoonful  for  pigs. 
Checks  fever  and  causes  the  animal  to  sweat. 

Arsenic  (Fowler's  Solution). — Use  1  to  \y2  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle;  y£ 
to  1  tablespoonful  for  horses ;  5  to  20  drops  for  sheep ;  5  to  20  drops  for  pigs. 
Give  after  eating  or  in  the  food.  Used  for  heaves  and  chronic  diseases. 

Asafetida  Gum.— Use  1  tablespoonful  for  cattle;  l/2  tablespoonful  for 
horses ;  1  scant  teaspoonful  for  sheep. 


410  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Asafetida  Tincture. — Use  6  to  8  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle ;  4  tablespoon- 
fuls  for  horses ;  1  tablespoonful  for  sheep ;  1  to  2  scant  teaspoonfuls  for  pigs. 

Baking  Soda  (Sodium  Bicarbonate). — Use  4  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle; 
2  tablespoonfuls  for  horses ;  1  to  2  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  Good  for 
indigestion,  constipation,  wind  colic.  Has  the  faculty  for  reducing  gases  and 
sweetens  the  stomach. 

Belladonna,  Fluid  Extract. — Use  1  scant  teaspoonful  for  cattle;  y2  scant 
teaspoonful  for  horses ;  20  drops  for  sheep ;  3  drops  for  pigs.  Given  with  good 
effect  in  severe  colic,  fevers,  caked  bag,  and  lockjaw. 

Blue 'Vitriol. — Use  2  tablespoonfuls  in  a  pint  of  water.  This  is  a  good 
antiseptic  and  also  astringent.  Cleaning  wounds  is  the  usual  use  for  it. 

Borax. — Used  chiefly  for  skin  treatments.  It  is  also  used  for  sore  mouth. 
Borax  is  a  good  germ  killer.  It  is  an  antiseptic  and  will  "bind  up"  the  bowels. 

Boric  Acid. — Dissolve  in  water  all  that  can  be  held  without  settling. 
This  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  antiseptic  medicines.  It  is  not  poisonous  and  can 
be  used  on  any  part  of  the  body. 

Buchu,  Powdered  Leaves. — Use  1  to  7  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle ;  1  to 
5  tablespoonfuls  for  horses ;  1  tablespoonful  for  sheep  and  hogs.  These  can  be 
used  as  diuretics.  Will  develop  heat  and  sweat  quickly. 

Butter  of  Antimony. — Used  mostly  as  an  external  application.  It  is 
usually  applied  in  salve  form  for  cleansing  sores.  Fine  for  foot-rot  and  any  sore 
on  the  body. 

Calomel. — Use  1  to  2  teaspoonfuls  for  cattle;  30  drops  to  1  teaspoonful 
for  horses ;  8  to  20  drops  for  hogs  and  sheep.  It  has  a  good  effect  as  a  purgative 
and  for  intestinal  worms.  When  used  in  dry  form  it  is  good  for  healing  open 
wounds. 

Camphor. — Use  2  good  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle ;  3  teaspoonfuls  for 
horses ;  yt>  teaspoonful  for  hogs ;  2  small  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep.  Give  in  half  a 
cup  of  water.  This  makes  a  fine  remedy  to  relieve  nausea,  colic,  diarrhea,  coughs 
and  to  stop  pain  in  a  wound.  Good  for  lameness  and  if  applied  to  bag  will  stop 
milk  flow. 

Cantharides,  or  Spanish  Fly. — Used  often  in  powdered  form — 1  teaspoon- 
ful mixed  with  seven  level  teaspoonfuls  of  lard,  and  applied  externally  makes  a 
good  blister.  A  drop  or  two  given  in  a  handful  of  grain  tends  to  excite  the  gen- 
erative organs. 

Capsicum. — Use  1  to  3  teaspoonfuls  for  cattle;  1  to  2  teaspoonfuls  for 
horses ;  y2  teaspoonful  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  a  spicy  drug  and  acts  in  such 
a  way  as  to  diminish  the  effect  of  a  stronger  drug.  This  is  a  good  stimulant. 

Carbolic  Acid. — Use  2  small  teaspoonfuls  in  a  cup  of  water.  This  is  used 
as  an  antiseptic  and  aids  in  healing  wounds  and  sores.  It  keeps  flies  away.  This 
is  very  poisonous  and  burns  the  body  if  not  diluted. 

Castor  Oil. — Use  1  cupful  for  cattle ;  3  cupfuls  for  horses ;  4  tablespoon- 
fuls for  sheep  and  pigs.  This  is  used  as  a  purgative  and  is  well  known. 


MISCELLANEOUS  411 

Charcoal. — Very  good  for  sweetening  the  stomach  and  absorbing  gas. 
Can  be  given  as  half  burned  wood.  Good  if  applied  to  open  sores. 

Chloroform. — Used  to  relieve  or  deaden  pain  and  to  produce  sleep.  A 
little  poured  on  a  handkerchief  and  held  to  the  nostrils  of  an  animal  quiets  it 
quickly.  Very  seldom  given  internally. 

Cinchona,  Powdered  Bark. — Use  1  to  4  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle ;  1  to  3 
teaspoonfuls  for  horses ;  y2  teaspoonful  for  sheep  and  hogs.  A  very  good  tonic. 

Copperas. — Use  2  teaspoonfuls  for  cattle ;  1  scant  teaspoonful  for  horses ; 
20  drops  for  sheep;  10  drops  for  pigs.  This  ;s  a  very  good  blood  tonic  and  is 
good  for  animals  in  a  rundown  condition.  It  will  also  stop  looseness  of  the 
bowels.  It  is  usually  mixed  with  the  food. 

Corrosive  Sublimate. — Use  1  small  drop  in  three  or  four  big  tablespoon- 
fuls of  water.  Very  good  as  an  antiseptic  and  for  disinfection.  It  is  very  poi- 
sonous, so  should  be  handled  with  great  care. 

Creolin. — Use  1  teaspoonful  to  a  pint  of  water.  Good  especially  where 
quantities  are  used.  Antiseptic  action.  Many  farmers  use  it  as  a  mange  cure 
and  for  lice. 

Digitalis. — Use  20  to  30  drops  for  cattle ;  10  to  20  drops  for  horses ;  5 
drops  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  one  of  the  five  most  valuable  medical  drugs. 
Very  good  as  a  quieter,  soothing  pain  and  quieting  the  nerves. 

Epsom  Salts. — Use  1  to  2  pounds  according  to  size,  for  cattle;  1  pound 
for  horses ;  3  to  5  ounces  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  very  effectively  used  as  a 
purgative.  Dissolve  salts  in  warm  water  and  give  as  a  drench. 

Fenugreek. — Use  2  to  6  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle;  1  to  5  tablespoonfuls 
for  horses;  1  to  \l/2  tablespoonfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  a  good  ingredi- 
ent usually  found  in  stock  foods.  It  is  a  good  stimulant. 

Gentian  Root. — Use  4  level  teaspoonfuls  (powdered)  for  cattle;  2  level 
teaspoonfuls  for  horses ;  l/2  teaspoonful  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  of  farm  drugs.  In  many  localities  it  can  be  dug  from  the  woods. 
It  is  used  as  a  bitter  tonic  and  especially  in  condition  powders. 

Ginger. — Use  2  good  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle ;  1  good  tablespoonful  for 
horses ;  1  to  2  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  Very  good  as  a  stimulant  and 
to  relieve  sickness  of  the  stomach.  Reduces  gas  if  combined  with  soda. 

Glauber's  Salts. — Use  1  to  2  pounds  for  cattle;  1  pound  for  horses;  4  to 
6  tablespoonfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  Very  good  purgative  for  all  animals  that 
have  two  or  more  stomachs.  It  is  dissolved  in  water  and  given  as  a  drench. 

Glycerine. — Given  as  an  injection.  Very  good  for  healing  inflamed  bowels. 
Keeps  sores  from  becoming  hard. 

Iodine. — Use  in  tincture  vform,  30  drops  or  a  scant  half  teaspoonful  for 
cattle;  20  drops  for  horses;  10  to  15  drops  for  sheep  and  hogs.  Good  applica- 
tion for  diminishing  swellings,  wind-puffs  and  ringworms.  Very  good  as  a 
blood  purifier. 


412  THE  RURAL  EFFICIENCY  GUIDE— STOCK 

Jamaica  Ginger. — Use  2  ounces  for  cattle ;  2  big  tablespoonf uls  for  horses ; 
1  tablespoon  ful  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  an  excellent  stimulant  and  can  be 
used  in  the  place  of  alcohol  or  whiskey.  Can  be  used  in  combination  with  other 
medicines  where  whiskey  or  alcohol  was  formerly  used.  Very  good  for  stomach 
troubles.  The  best  way  to  give  this  is  in  milk. 

Juniper  Berries. — Use  2  to  5  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle ;  2  to  4  tablespoon- 
fuls  for  horses ;  1  to  2  tablespoonfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  These  are  good  for 
increasing  the  flow  of  urine  and  sweating. 

Kerosene. — Use  2  or  3  tablespoonfuls  in  a  cup  of  olive  or  linseed  oil  for 
cattle;  2  tablespoonfuls  in  linseed  oil  or  sweet  oil  for  horses.  Very  good  given 
internally  for  worms  and  externally  to  blister  or  to  cleanse  deep  cuts  and 
wounds.  Has  the  tendency  to  heal  a  wound  from  the  innermost  surface. 
Keeps  away  flies. 

Lard. — Use  1  pint  of  warm  lard  for  cattle ;  1  pint  for  horses ;  1  cupful 
for  sheep  or  hogs.  Given  internally  to  relieve  bloat,  indigestion  and  constipation. 
Externally  it  may  be  mixed  with  turpentine,  kerosene  or  cantharides  for  sores 
or  blisters. 

Lime. — Use  2  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle ;  l/>  to  1  tablespoonful  for  horses, 
YT.  teaspoonful  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  good  for  strengthening  the  bones  in 
animals.  When  used  in  liquid  form  mix  with  fresh  water  and  allow  to  settle. 
Very  good  as  a  disinfectant  and  can  be  sprinkled  about  in  the  dry  form. 

Linseed  Oil,  Raw. — Use  1  to  ll/2  quarts  for  cattle;  ^  to  1  quart  for 
horses;  1  to  2  cupfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  used  as  a  purgative  and  is 
very  soothing  and  healing  to  the  bowels.  It  is  used  as  a  drench  and  in  combina- 
tion with  other  medicines. 

Mustard. — Use  as  an  emetic  and  especially  for  poulticing  to  draw  out 
inflammation.  Can  be  applied  to  any  part  of  the  animal's  body  as  a  counter- 
irritant. 

Nux  Vomica. — Use  2  teaspoonfuls  for  cattle;  1  level  teaspoonful  for 
horses;  10  to  15  grains  or  a  little  on  the  tip  of  a  small  spoon  for  sheep  and  hogs. 
This  is  poisonous,  but  is  used  for  animals  in  a  rundown  condition.  Very  good 
when  used  in  condition  powders.  Acts  as  a  stimulant. 

Peppermint,  Essence  of. — Use  l/2  teaspoonful  for  cattle;  20  drops  for 
horses ;  5  to  10  drops  for  sheep  and  pigs.  Give  in  warm  water  with  sugar.  Used 
in  colic  and  indigestion  for  pains  in  the  stomach. 

Resin. — Use  y2  to  1  tablespoonful  for  cattle;  5  teaspoonfuls  for  horses; 
1  to  2  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  has  a  very  good  effect  on  the  kid- 
neys of  all  animals  and  is  quite  often  used  as  one  of  the  ingredients  in  condition 
powders  and  stock  foods.  This  is  given  in  the  ground  or  powdered  form. 

Salt. — Good  when  used  as  an  antiseptic.  Keeps  animal  in  condition. 
Always  give  animals  plenty  of  salt. 

Saltpeter. — Use  2  to  3  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle;  2  tablespoonfuls  for 
horses ;  1  to  2  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  Stimulates  kidneys,  reduces 
fever  and  watery  swellings.  Good  blood  purifier. 


MISCELLANEi  >1TS  -\\-> 

Sulphur. — Use  1  tablospoonful  for  cattle;   I   tablespoonfnl  for  horse 
to  1  teaspoonful  for  sheep  and  pijjs.    This  is  good  for  lice,  internally  or  exter- 
nally, and  a  blood  purifier. 

Sweet  Spirits  of  Nitre. — Use  4  to  6  good  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle;  2  to 
1  tablespoonfuls  for  horses;  2  to  4  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep  and  ho^s.  This  sin  mid 
always  be  kept  on  the  farm.  It  is  very  good  for  sudden  attacks  of  colic,  indiges- 
tion, inflammation  of  the  kidneys  and  reduces  fever. 

Turpentine. — Use  4  to  6  tablespoonfuls  for  cattle;  1  to  4  tablespoonfuls 
for  horses,  1  to  3  teaspoonfuls  for  sheep  and  hogs.  This  is  fine  for  colic,  worms, 
bloat,  and  is  good  as  a  stimulant  or  externally  as  a  liniment.  It  can  be  mixed 
with  lard  if  applied  to  a  wound. 

Vinegar. — (See  Acetic  Acid). 


BEES. 

The  bee  industry  is  becoming  one 
of  the  profitable  and  interesting  occupa- 
tions for  people  on  small  farms,  and  as 
"extra"  work  for  the  boys  and  girls  on 
the  farm.  There  is  a  great  opportunity 
for  development.  As  the  industry  itself 
is  so  little  known,  many  fine  articles 
which  are  written  do  not  reach  the  peo- 
ple who  wish  to  read  them.  Such  topics 
•  as  "Beginning  with  Bees,"  "Wintering," 
"Feeding  and  Breeding,"  "Diseases  of 
Bees,"  as  well  as  articles  on  Honey, 
Combinations  of  Bees  and  Poultry, 
Bee  Outfits,  etc.,  can  be  obtained  from 
specialists  in  this  line.  The  Government 
has  a  number  of  good  documents.  Va- 
rious State  Experiment  Stations  are  good 
sources.  A  very  well  recognized  organi- 
zation that  takes  pleasure  in  the  distri- 
bution of  bee  literature  and  information 
is  the  A.  T.  Ropt  Bee  Company  of  Me- 
dina, Ohio. 


LIVE  STOCK  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


MANY   stockmen   enjoy  having   a   more   or   less   complete 
library  of  books  treating  in  detail  and  at  length  the  numer- 
ous subjects  and  phases  of  live  stock  husbandry.    A  few  of 
the  best  books  on  important  subjects  and  two  of  the  most  gen- 
erally read  live  stock  periodicals  follow.    The  publishers  of  "The 
Stock  Book,"  will  gladly  help  you  to  secure  them : 

"Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,"  Plumb. 
"Judging  Farm  Animals,"  Plumb. 
"Breeding  Farm  Animals,"  Mumford. 
"Feeds  and  Feeding,"  Henry  and  Morrison. 
"Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,"  Eckles. 
"Beef  Cattle  Production,"  Mumford. 
"Pork  Production,"  Day. 
"Sheep  Management,"  Kleinheinz. 
"Horse  Production,"  Gay. 

LIVE  STOCK  PERIODICALS 

"Breeder's  Gazette,"  Chicago,  111.    A  weekly  publi- 
cation devoted  to  all  classes  of  live  stock. 

"Hoard's    Dairymen,"    Fort    Atkinson,    Wis.      A 
weekly  journal  devoted  to  dairy  farming. 


414 


GLOSSARY 

Abbatoirs — Slaughterhouses. 

Abrasion— A  breaking  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane. 

Absorptive — Having  power  to  absorb. 

Accessories — Assistants. 

Accrue — To  increase. 

Acidulation — Act  of  making  moderately  sour  or  acid. 

Aerate — To  expose  to  action  of  air. 

Aerated — Supplied  or  impregnated  with  common  air. 

Agar — Sea  weed. 

Aggregate — To  collect  into  a  mass. 

Albuminous — Containing  albumen. 

Alveoli — Deep  cavities  in  the  receptacles  of  composite  flowers,  as  the  cotton- 
thistle. 

Annual — Yearly ;  returning  every  year. 

Anthracuose — A   destructive   disease    of  plants   usually   manifested   by1  dis- 
colored spots. 

Antiseptic — Preventing  or  destroying  putrefaction. 

Aperture — Opening. 

Aphid — Bee-like  insect. 

Aphids — Plant  lice. 

Appendicular — Like  a  small  appendage. 

Aspergillus — Brush  used  by  priests  to  sprinkle  holy  water. 

Assimilate — To  take  up  or  change  a  thing  or  element,  to  make  it  harmonize 
with  another. 

Assimilated — Incorporated  or  transformed  into  a  homogenous  part  of  some- 
thing. 

Astringent — An  agent  producing  contraction  of  organic  tissues. 

Autopneumatic — Self-operated  by  air. 

Awn — One  of  the  barbed  appendages  known  collectively  as  the  beard,  in 
barley,  oats,  etc. 

Bacterial — Pertaining  to  or  consisting  of  bacteria  in  the  widest  sense ;  result- 
ing from  or  caused  by  bacteria. 
Bacterial — Resembling  bacteria. 

Barrel — Name  given  to  large  stomach  of  horse  or  cow. 

415 


416  THE    RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 

Biennial— Occurring  every  two  years. 
Biliary — Conveying  the  bile. 
Bolls — Pods  of  a  plant. 

Calcareous — Containing  lime. 

Cam — A  wedge-shaped  clamp  which  moves  about  an  axis. 

Canula — Small  tube  left  in  wound  after  tapping  to  enable  escape  of  air  or 

fluid. 

Capillary — A  minute  blood-vessel. 
Capsicum — A  large  tropical  herb,  the  pulverized  berries  of  which  are  used 

as  a  stimulant  and  counter  irritant  in  neuralgia  and  rheumatism.     Also 

used  as  a  spice. 

Carbohydrates — Vegetables  containing  fats. 
Carbolized — Filled  with  carbolic  acid. 
Carbonaceous — Containing  or  composed  of  carbon. 
Carunculations— Fleshy  elevation  of  surface. 
Cast — To  throw. 

Catalpa — Genus  of  American  and  East  Indian  trees. 
Cauterize — To  burn  over. 
Cellulose — Containing  cells. 
Centrifugal — Radiating  from  center. 
Chime — Edge  or  border. 
Chufas  (pi.  of  chufa) — A  kind  of  sedge  of  southern  Europe.    It  produces  small 

edible  tubers  of  which  hogs  are  fond. 
Circulis — Any  snout  beetle. 

Coagulate — To  curdle ;  clot ;  congeal ;  to  form  into  a  compact  mass. 
Collards — A  variety  of  kale,  used  as  a  green  vegetable.     Found  mainly  in 

South. 

Colocynth — A  drastic  cathartic,  causing  a  watery  discharge. 
Colostrum — The  first  milk  of  a  mammal  after  giving  birth. 
Combustible — That  may  be  set  on  fire  and  burned. 

Commutator — A  device  to  change  the  direction  or  strength  of  an   electric 
current. 

Complication — Combination  of  diseases. 

Component — Helping  to  form;  a  part. 

Composted — Manured. 

Compress — A  folded  piece  of  cloth  used  over  a  wound. 

Compressor — A  device  for  producing  a  graduated  pressure  upon  an  object. 

Concentrates — Something  reduced  to  state  of  purity. 

Conclave — Gathering. 


GLOSSARY  417 

Concretion — Act  of  growing  together. 

Conspicuous — Plainly  visible. 

Constituents — Elements,  or  component  parts. 

Constitutional — Inherited  disease;  those  that  are  general  or  that  pervade  the 

whole  system. 
Contributory — Pertaining  to   giving  jointly   in   common   with   others   for  a 

common  purpose. 

Convalescence — The  period  of  recovery  after  disease. 
Copulation — Sexual  connection. 
Correlation — A  mutual  or  reciprocal  relation,  as  of  part  to  part,  or  of  parts 

to  a  whole. 

Corrosion — Eating  away. 

Corrosive — A  substance  that  eats  away  or  destroys. 
Costive — Constipated. 

Cropping — To  cut  off  the  tops  or  tips  of;  to  reap. 

Culms — Jointed  stems  of  grass  which  are  usually  hollow  except  at  the  nodes. 
Curbs — An  inclosing  frame,  border  or  edging.     An  edging  of  upright  stone 

along  the  outer  limit  of  a  sidewalk. 
Cuspidor — A  spittoon. 
Cylinder — Long  tube. 

Debilitant — An  agent  allaying  excitement ;  weakening. 

Debris — Ruins  ;  rubbish. 

Decomposition — Decay;  the  analysis  of  a  body;  disintegration. 

Delirium — A  temporary  state  of  mental  disturbance,  manifested  by  irrita- 
tion and  confusion. 

Demarcation — The  limit  boundary,  or  lines  so  fixed  or  determined. 

Depleted — Reduced,  lessened  or  emptied. 

Desquamation — The  separation  or  shedding  of  the  cuticle  or  epidermis  in 
the  form  of  flakes  or  scales. 

Dilator — An  instrument  for  stretching  a  cavity;  also  a  dilating  muscle. 

Distillation — Vaporization  of  a  liquid  with  subsequent  condensation. 

Diuretic — A  medicine  increasing  the  flow  of  urine. 

Dividends — The  profits  apportioned  among  shareholders. 

Dolomite — A  marble-like  substance  consisting  of  calcium-magnesium  car- 
bonate. 

Dropsical — Diseased  with  dropsy;  tending  to  dropsy. 

Ecraseur — A  wire  loop  or  chain  for  amputating. 
Effusion — Pouring  out  of  liquid. 


418  THE    RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 

Elements — Essential  parts  of  anything. 

Emaciated — Wasted  away  in  flesh. 

Emaciation — A  loss  of  flesh;  leanness. 

Emasculation — Act  of  removing  testicles. 

Emasculator — One  who  castrates. 

Embryonic — Pertaining  to  the  embryo. 

Emmer — A   hardy   cereal   grain,    related   to   spelt,   commonly    cultivated    in 

Russia  and  Germany  where  it  is  used  as  stock  feed  and  is  also  made 

into  gruel  and  porridge. 

Endive — An  annual  or  yeai-ty  plant  with  long  root. 
Endosperm — The   nutritive   tissue   formed   within   the   embryo    sac   in    seed 

plants. 

Enteritis — Inflammation  of  the  bowels 
Enumerated — Named  one  by  one. 
Epithelial — Pertaining  to  epithelium. 

Epithelium — Tissue  forming  outer  layer  of  mucous  membrane. 
Erosion — Act  of  wearing  away. 
Erroneous — Incorrect,  mistaken. 

Erysipelatous — Pertaining  to  or  of  the  nature  of  erysipelas. 
Escutcheon — Any  shield-shaped  surface  or  device. 
Essential — Necessary ;  substantial. 
Eucalyptus — A  tree  native  of  Austria  and  Tasmania ;  Eucalyptus  oil  made 

from  the  leaves. 

Eustachian  Tube — Canal  to  supply  air  to  part  of  ear. 
Evacuation — Defecation ;  the  act  of  voiding. 
Excreta — Waste  matter  eliminated  from  the  body. 
Excretion — The  discharged  waste  products  of  the  body. 
Expectoration — The  expulsion  of  the  secretions  from  the  chest. 
Extenuating — Diminishing. 

Fallacy — Unproved  statement. 

Fanging — Seizing,  grasping. 

Feces — Sediment  after  infusion  or  distillation  ;  dregs ;  refuse ;  excrement. 

Feldspar — An  important  constituent  of  rocks. 

Flat — Any  field  growing  a  crop. 

Flatulence — The  presence  of  gas  in  the  digestive  canal. 

Flatulent — Characterized   by   flatulence. 

Floats,  Float — A   heavy   platform   of  planks   for  drawing  over  the   soil  to 

compact  it  and  improve  its  mechanical  condition. 
Foetus  or  Fetus — The  product  of  conception  after  fourth  month  of  gestation. 


GLOSSARY  419 

Frenching-A  fungus  disease  of  uncertain  nature  affecting  plants,  causing 

the  leaves  to  lose  color  and  die. 
Fundamental — Essential ;  indispensable. 
Fungicides— Any  substances  that  destroy  fungi. 
Fungoid — Character  of  fungus. 

Generation— Process  of  producing  offspring;  reproduction;  descent;  gen- 
ealogy. 

Germinate — To  sprout. 

Gestation — The  act  of  bearing;  pregnancy. 
Get — Offspring;  breed. 
Gilts — Young  sows. 

Girdled — Enclosed;  bound  with  a  belt  or  sash. 
Glaciated — Acted  upon  by  ice  and  snow. 
Globular — Globe-shaped. 
Glucose — A   syrup  obtained  by   imperfect  conversion  of  starch  into  sugar. 

Haw — Third  eyelid  of  horse. 

Hectic — Habitual ;  reddening  of  the  cheeks  in  tuberculosis. 

Helebore — A  genus  of  herbs. 

Herbaceous — Pertaining  to  or  having  the  characteristics  of  an  herb;  herb- 
like. 

Hernia — A  protrusion  consisting  of  an  organ  or  part  projecting  through 
some  natural  or  accidental  opening  in  its  natural  cavity. 

Humus — Dark  colored  substance  formed  by  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter. 

Hydrated — Combined  with  water. 

tji 
Igneous — Pertaining  to  or  resembling  fire. 

Immune — Safe   from   attack. 

Impalpable — Not  capable  of  being  felt. 

Impervious — Not    capable    of   being   penetrated. 

Impervious — Permitting   no   passage   into   or   through;    impenetrable. 

Impoverished — Reduced  to  poverty;  poor. 

Incrustration — The  formation  of  a  crust. 

Indiscriminate — Making  no  difference  or  distinction. 

Infection — The  communication  of  disease  germs. 

Infiltration — The  act  or  process  of  filtrating  or  passing  through. 

Inoculated — (Soil)  Having  introduced  special  forms  of  micro  organisms 
by  means  of  infected  soil  or  pure  cultures  to  promote  fixation  and  as- 
similation of  free  nitrogen  and  other  beneficial  activities. 


420  THE    RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 

Inoculation — The  introduction  of  the  virus  of  a  particular  disease  into  the 
system  through  the  skin. 

Insecticides — An  insect  destroyer. 

Insoluble — A  substance  that  cannot  be  dissolved. 

Insulator — A  device  made  of  an  insulating  substance  for  preventing  the  pas- 
sage of  electricity,  heat  or  sound. 

lodism — A  morbid  state  produced  by  the  use  of  iodine  and  its  compounds. 

Irreparable — That  cannot  be  rectified  or  made  amends 'for. 

Irritation — Excitement ;    stimulation. 

Judicious — Wise ;  prudent. 

Kafir — Indian  millet. 

Kainit — A  natural  salt  used  as  a  fertilizer. 

Kalsomine — (Calcimine) — A  wash  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  whiting,  with 

glue  and  water,  often  tinted. 
Kaolin — A  clay-like  compact  friable  or  mealy,  pearly  to  earthy,  white,  grayish, 

or  reddish  hydrous,  aluminum  silicate. 

Koumiss — Fermented  mare's  milk. 

i 

Laceration — A  rending,  or  tearing  of  the  flesh. 

Lactation — Time  of  suckling  or  milk  period. 

Languor — Sluggishness,  inaction  or  inertness. 

Laquered — Paneled  or  spaced. 

Laterals — A  side  ditch  or  canal. 

Leaching — Sinking  into  ground. 

Legumes — Pods  of  the  seed-bearing  plants,  as  beans  and  peas. 

Leguminous — Relating  to  legume ;  bearing  plants. 

Lesions — A  hurt ;  an  injury.  Med :  Any  morbid  change  in  exercise  of  func- 
tions. 

Lespedeza — One  seeding;  one  jointed  pod  plant. 

Levy — Collect. 

Ligatured — Tied  or  stopped  blood  vessel. 

Lobe — A  projecting  part,  especially  if  rounded  or  globular,  as  of  the  ear  or  of 
a  leaf  or  petal. 

Lobes — Rounded  part  or  projection. 

Locknut — Nut  to  keep  other  nuts  from  slipping. 

Loppered — Clotted  ;  scoured. 

Lupine — Any  plant  of  the  seed-bearing  species. 


GLOSSARY  421 

Macule — A  spot  or  blemish. 

Malanders — Eruption  on  hock  of  horse. 

Maturity — The  state  of  being  developed. 

Mediocre — A  middle  quantity. 

Metamorphic—  Liable  to  variation  or  change;  producing  changes   that  go 

on  in  rocks. 

Microscopic — Very  small. 
Minimum— A  portion  so  small  as  to  be  incapable  of  further  division;  an 

atom. 

Miscible — Mixable. 
Moldboard — A  curved  plate  of  iron  back  of  a  plowshare.    It  turns  over  the 

earth  in  plowing. 

Mottler — A  brush  used  in  mottling. 
Mulch — A  covering  of  the  soil  with  any  loose  material. 
Mummies — The  embalmed  bodies  of  human  beings  or  sacred  animals. 
Muriade — A  chloride. 

Nasturtiums — A  plant  (dwarf  or  climbing)  of  any  one  of  several  species  of 

the  genus  Tropaeolum. 
Neutralize — To  render  ineffective. 
Neutralizing — Checking  the  action  of  an  agent. 
Nitrifying — Combining  or  treating  with  nitrogen. 
Nitrogenous — Containing  nitrogen. 
Non-symboliotic — Not  mutual. 

Obesity — Fatness ;  corpulence. 
Oblique — Slant. 

Obviates — Removes  from  the  way  or  path. 
Offal— Waste  meat. 

Omasium — The  small  stomach  of  the  cow. 
Optimum — Best  or  most  favorable  degree. 

Organic — Showing  animal  or  vegetable  characteristics ;  pertaining  to  or  having 
organs. 

Paddock — Inclosed  space 

Palatability — State  of  being  pleasing  to  the  taste. 

Palatable — Acceptable ;  agreeable  to  the  palate  or  taste. 

Palate — Roof  of  mouth. 

Panicle — A  tuft  on  plants. 

Paroxysm — A  spasm  or  fit ;  a  convulsion. 

Parturition — Act  of  bringing  forth  young. 


422  THE    RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 

pectin A  white  amorphous  compound  contained  in  various  fleshy  fruits 

as  apples  or  pears. 

Peptones — Products  of  digestion  which  cannot  be  precipitated  by  ammonium 
sulphate. 

Peptonized — Converted  into  peptone.  To  digest  or  dissolve  by  a  proteolytic 
ferment. 

Percolation — Seeping  through. 

Perennial — Continuing  through  the  year  or  through  many  years. 

Perforation — State  of  being  pierced  through. 

Peritonitis — Inflammation  of  the  peritoneum  or  lining  of  the  abdomen. 

Pestle — Instrument  used  to  pound  or  pulverize. 

Pictorially — Representing  in  or  as  if  in  pictures. 

Piquancy — Cleverness;  brightness;  sauciness. 

Plethoric — Full-blooded. 

Pliant — Flexible,  easily  bent  or  twisted. 

Polled— Dehorned. 

Porosity — State  of  being  porous  or  containing  holes. 

Port — Hole  for  passage  of  steam  or  water. 

Potency — Mental,  moral  or  physical  power. 

Potential — Endowed  with  power;  existing  in  possibility,  not  in  actuality. 

Poulard — A  fat  pullet. 

Poult — A  young  chicken. 

Predisposition — Previous  inclination  ;  tendency. 

Prepotency — Superior,  powerful. 

Progeny — Offspring ;  descendants. 

Prolific — Fruitful. 

Prolificacy — Producing  or  reproducing.    The  quality  of  being  prolific. 

Promiscuously — Indiscriminately. 

Propagated — To  be  produced  or  multiplied. 

Prostration — Extreme  nervous  exhaustion. 

Protein — Nitrogenous  material  in  vegetable  or  animal  substances. 

Pupa — The  intermediate,  usually  quiescent,  form  assumed  by  metabolic  in- 
sects after  the  larval  stage. 

Purulent — Having  the  character  of  pus. 

Pustules — Elevations  resembling  pimples  or  blisters. 

Putrefaction — Decayed  ;  process  of  putrefying. 

Pyrethrum — Plant  good  for  medicine. 

Quarantine — To  compel  to  remain  at  a  distance  without  intercourse,  when 
suspected  of  having  contagious  disease. 


GLOSSARY  423 

Raspacious — Given  to  plunder. 

Rebushing — To  furnish  again  with  bush  or  lining. 

Rectangular — Longer  on  two  sides  than  on  the  ends. 

Reeving — To  pass  through  a  hole. 

Rejuvenation — To  reinvigorate ;  to  stimulate. 

Residue — That  which  remains  after  a  part  is  taken  or  removed;  remnant; 

remainder. 
Rotation  (of  crops) — The  cultivation  of  a  succession  of  different  crops  on  the 

same  piece  of  land  before  it  is  again  planted  with  the  original  crop. 
Roughage — Coarse  fodder;  any  rough  or  coarse  substance. 
Rumen — Largest  stomach  of  cow  or  sheep. 

Saline — Consisting  of  salt  or  containing  salt. 

Sallenders — An  eruption  occurring  on  hind  leg  of  horse ;  similar  to  malanders. 

Scrofulous — Cold  abscess. 

Scurfy — Having  or  producing   thin   dry   scales  or  scabs  on  the   body;   as 

dandruff. 

Seasonal — Pertaining  to  a  season. 
Sedative — Soothing  insidiously ;  treacherously. 
Sedentary — Occupied  in  sitting. 
Sedimentary — Having  the  character  of  sediment. 
Sedimentation — Act  or  process  of  depositing  sediment. 
Semi-arid — Half  barren. 

Septic — A  substance  that  promotes  putrefaction. 
Sequela  (pi.)  Sequelae — Followers,  results. 
Shanks — The  lower  part  of  the  leg. 
Shot  (Surveying) — Range  in  general. 
Shucks — Husks ;  bundles  of  sheaves. 
Silt— Soil. 

Siphon — Tube  to  draw  liquid  from  well  or  container. 
Siphonage — The  action  of  a  siphon  or  tube  in  conveying  a  liquid  from  one 

vessel  to  another  at  a  lower  level. 
Sizing — Applying  a  liquid  used  by  painters. 
Slavor — Running  at  mouth. 

Sludge — Material  from  waste  soap,  liquors  or  wool-scouring  industries. 
Sludge— Mud;  mire;  slush;  to  cover  or  fill  in  with  soft  mud  or  mire. 
Soiling  Crops— Those  that  enrich  the  soil  for  succeeding  crops,  such  as  the 

legumes,  etc. 
Soluble — May  be  dissolved. 


424  THE    RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 

Solvent — An  agent  capable  of  dissolving  substances. 

Sordes — Foul  matter;  excretion;  useless  matter.  Med:  The  crust  that  col- 
lects on  the  teeth  and  lips  in  low  fever. 

Spatula — Broad  bladed  paddle  or  knife. 

gpelt — A  race  of  wheat  having  loose  ears,  the  grains  being  hung  triangular 
in  cross  sections. 

Spike — An  ear  of  corn  or  grain. 

Spores — Any  minute  organization;  germs. 

Spuddung — Digging ;  removing. 

Stale — Urine  of  horses  or  cattle. 

Stallioners — Men  who  travel  with  stallions. 

Stanchion — Upright  bars,  posts  or  timber  forming  a  principal  support. 

Stavesacre — European  and  Asiatic  larkspur.  Seeds  contain  delphinine;  a 
violent  emetic  and  cathartic. 

Stimulant — An  agent  increasing  functional  activity. 

Stover — Fodder  or  food  for  cattle. 

Subcutaneous — Lying  beneath  the  skin. 

Subsequent — Succeeding  or  following. 

Substantiate — To  verify. 

Succulent — Juicy. 

Suffice — To  be  enough. 

Sump — Puddle  or  pool. 

Superficial — Pertaining  to  surface;  shallow. 

Supines — Plants  of  the  genus  Lupinus. 

Susceptible — Yielding  readily;  capable  of  being  influenced. 

Symbiosis — Living  together. 

Symmetry — Harmonious  relation  of  parts.  Similarity  of  parts  on  opposite 
sides  of  an  axis  or  center. 

Tamped — Packed  down. 

Tankage — Waste   matter  from  tanks. 

Teosinte — A  large  grass  grown  for  fodder  in  many  warm  countries. 

Testicle — One  of  the  genital  glands  of  the  male  in  which  spermatozoa  and 

other  portions  of  the  semen  are  formed. 
Thurl — To  drill  or  bore;  specifically  in  mining.     Crossholes  or  ventilation 

passages  between  two  headings. 
Tillage — Preparing  land  for  seed ;  cultivation. 
Tiller — A  sprout;  a  shoot. 

Tillering — To  put  forth  new  shoots  from  the  roots. 
Tilth— Cultivation. 


GLOSSARY  425 

Topography — The  description  in  detail  of  any  tract  of  land,  place  or  region ; 

as  in  surveying  a  country. 
Trachea — Windpipe. 

Transpiration — A  passing  through  or  out ;  escape. 

Trocar — Instrument   for   puncturing  animals  and   letting  out   fluid  or  gas. 
Turbidity — A  disturbed  condition. 

Ulceration — The  process  of  forming  an  ulcer,  or  becoming  ulcerous. 

Vehicle — A  medium,  as  a  liquid  with  which  is  mixed  some  other  substance 

that  it  may  be  applied  or  administered  more  easily. 
Velocities — Speeds. 

Velocity — Swiftness ;  speed ;  to  cover  or  fill  in  with  soft  mud  or  mire. 
Vertebrae — One  of  the  segmented  portions  of  the  spinal  column. 
Vesicles — Small  blisters. 
Vetch — A  fabaceous  plant ;  like  a  bean. 
Viability — Ability  to  live. 
Viability — Being  capable  of  living. 
Virus — A  slimy  or  poisonous  liquid.     Med:    The  poison  or  contagium  of 

an  infectious  disease. 
Viscid — Viscous  (See  Viscous). 

Viscous — A  gummy  substance  produced  in  glutinous  fermentation. 
Vitrified — Turned  or  converted  into  glass ;  to  resemble  glass. 
Vogue — Fashion ;  style ;  mode.    To  row ;  to  soil. 
Voided — Cleared  or  vacated. 
Voracious — Greedy ;  hoggish. 

Whorls — Turns. 

Woolly  Aphis — A  woolly  plant  louse. 


MEMORANDA 


INDEX 


CATTLE 


A. 

PAGE. 

Abortion  74 

Abortion,  Home  Prevention  for 75 

Action  of  Drugs  in  Cattle  and  Horses.  73 

Advantage  in  Breeding  Grade  Animals  4 
Advantage  in  Breeding  Pure  Bred 

Animals  4 

Advantages  in  Finished  Cattle.'. 50 

Afterbirth,  Retained 75 

Alfalfa  Meal :32 

Anatomy  of  Cattle 71 

Animal  Breeding,  Definitions 

Applying  to 2 

Animal  Breeding,  Factors  that 

Insure  Success  3 

Animals,  Cross  Bred 3 

Animals,  Farm,  Importance  of 1 

Animals,  Grade,  Advantages  in 

Breeding  4 

Animals,  Grade  and  High  Grade 3 

Animals,  Mongrel  and  Scrub 3 

Animals.  Pure  Bred 3 

Animals.  Pure  Bred,  Advantages 

in  Breeding 4 

Anthrax  75 

B. 

Baby  Beef  Production 55 

Back,  Grubs  in  the 86 

Bandaging  and  Stitching  Wounds 73 

Barley     31 

Barn,   Dairy 37 

Barn  Work,  Dairy,  Schedule 

for  Winter    25 

Barrenness  in  Cows  and  Bulls 75 

Beef,  Baby,   Production 55 

Beef,  Breeding  Herd,  General  Care....    ."><> 

Beef,  Calves,    Methods    of    Rearing 57 

Beef  Cattle,  Most  Desirable  Types 49 

Beef  Cattle    Production 45-55 

Beef  Cattle,  Pure  Bred  Production 45 

Beef  Cattle,  Score  Card 46 

Beet  Pulp,   Dried 32 

Beet  Tops,  Sugar  and  Corn,  Sfiagc 

from    '•  •   37 

Best  Breed  to  Select 2 

Bites,    Frost    86 

Bites,  Snake  and  Insect 90 

Black  Leg  "•"> 

Black  Leg,  Prevention  for 7G 


PAGE 

Bleeding    70 

Blind   Staggers    76 

Bloat   76 

Blocked  Teats  or  Structure  of 

the  Teats  78 

Blood,  Good  Circulation   Important...  19 

Blood,  Impure   88 

Blood  Letting    78 

Blood  Poisoning  78 

Bloody  Milk   79 

Bowels,  Inflammation  of*  Enteritis 89 

Bran   or   Feed,    Buckwheat 31 

Bran,   Wheat    30 

Breathing  in  Young  Calves  (How 

to  Start)  79 

Breed,  Best  to  Select 2 

Breeders  of  Live  Stock,  Classified 4 

Breeding  Animal,  Definitions  Apply- 
ing to   2 

Breeding,  Animal,  Factors  that 

Insure  Success 3 

Breeding  Beef  Herd,  General  Care 56 

Breeding  and  Constitution  Essential...  22 

Breeding,  Cross 2 

Breeding  Grade  Animals,  Advan- 
tages in    4 

Breeding  Herd,  Feeding 57 

Breeding,  Live  2 

Breeding  and  Management  of  Live 

Stock   1-10 

Breeding,  Natural 2 

Breeding,  Promiscuous  2 

Breeding  Pure  Bred  Animals, 

Advantages  in    4 

Breeding  Pure  Bred  Live  Stock, 

Wherein  it  is  more  Expensive 4 

Breeds   of   Cattle 10 

Breeds  and  Types  of  Dairy  Cows, 

Essentials  for  Success 13 

Breeds  and  Types,  Necessity  for 1 

Brewers'  Dried  Grains 31 

Brewers'  Wet  Grains 32 

Bronchitis 79 

Buckwheat  Bran  or  Feed 31 

Buckwheat   By-Product    31 

Buckwheat  Hulls    31 

Buckwheat  Middlings  31 

Buffalo  Gnat 80 

Bulls  and  Calves.  Castration  of 73 

Bulls  and  Cows,  Barrenness  in 75 


427 


428 


THE   RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


Bulls,   Management  and  Selection 59 

Buying  Cows,  Disadvantages 14 

Buying  Feeds  for  Dairy  Rations 29 

By-Products  of   Buckwheat 31 

c. 

Calf,  Feed  Hay  and  Grain  Carefully..  40 
Calf,  Feed  Skim  Milk  and  Silage 

During  Fifth  Week 40 

Calf,  Give  Colostrum  or  First  Milk...  40 

Calf  Should  be  Well  Born 40 

Calves,  Beef,  Methods  of  Rearing 57 

Calves  and  Bulls,  Castration  of 73 

Calves,  Dairy  Raising 39 

Calves,  Dehorning 82 

Calves,  Dehorning  with  Caustic  Potash  43 
Calves,  Don't  Allow  to  Suck  one 

Another  41 

Calves,  Feed  Regularly  First  Year....  41 

Calves,  Grain  Mixture  for 41 

Calves,  Grow  Well  and  Breed 

Second  Year  41 

Calves,  Indigestion  in 88 

Calves,  Keep  Stables  Clean 41 

Calves,  Lung  Worms  in 92 

Calves,  New  Born,  Constipation  in....  81 
Calves,  Raising  on  Oil  Meal  Gruel..  ••  41 

Calves,  Stomach  Worms  in 97 

s  Calves,  Treating  for  Scours 42 

Calves,  Treatment  for  Lice  and 

Ringworm 45 

Calves,  Use  of  Whey 42 

Calves,  Young,  Breathing  in 

(How  to  Start) • 79 

Calving  Time,  Care  of  Cows 24 

Capped  Elbow 80 

Carbohydrates,  Feeds 29 

Card,  Score  for  Beef  Cattle •  •  46 

Card,  Score  for  Dairy  Cow 17 

Care  and  Feed  of  Dairy  Cow 23-33 

Care,  General,  of  the  Breeding 

Beef  Herd 56 

Care,  General,  of  Fattening  Cattle....  54 

Castration  of  Calves  and  Bulls 73 

Catarrh  •  • 80 

Cattle,  Beef,  Most  Desirable  Type 49 

Cattle,  Beef,  Score  Card 46 

Cattle,  Breeds  of 10 

Cattle,  Dairy,  Characteristics 13 

Cattle,  Dairy,  Production  and 

Management  13-23 

Cattle,  Diseases  of 62-100 

Cattle  Diseases,  General  Symptoms. 62-70 

Cattle,  Equipment  for  Feeding 53 

Cattle,  Fat,  How  to  Ship 55 

Cattle,  Fattening  in  Feed  Lot 48 

Cattle,  Fattening,  General  Care  of....  54 

Cattle,  Fattening  on  Grass 48 

Cattle,  Fattening,  Grooming 54 

Cattle,  Fattening,  Salt  and  Water  for.  54 


PAGE. 

Cattle,  Finished,  Advantages  in 50 

Cattle,  General  Purpose  Type 9 

Cattle  Grazing  47 

Cattle,  Hogs  Should  Follow 53 

Cattle  and  Horses,  Action  of 

Drugs  in  73 

Cattle,  Market,  Classes  and  Grades....  49 

Cattle,  Marketing  54 

Cattle  for  Meat  Purposes 45 

Cattle  Production  7-11 

Cattle  Production,  Beef 45-55 

Cattle  Production  and  Management 

Dairy  13-23 

Cattle,  Pure  Breed  Beef,  Production...  45 

Cattle,  Treatment  of  Diseases 71-100 

Cattle,  Turning  Onto  Pasture 48 

Cattle,  Types  of 7 

Caustic  Potash,  Dehorning  Calves 

with  43 

Chapped  Teats 80 

Characteristics  of  Dairy  Cattle 13 

Choking  80 

Chop,  Hominy  30 

Chronic,  Dysentery  82 

Circulation,  Good  Blood  Important...  19 
Classes  and  Grades  of  Market  Cattle..  49 

Colic  81 

Colostrum,  Give  Calf 40 

Common  Deficiencies  in  Cows 21 

Composition  of  Feeds 27 

Concentrated  Feeds,  Corn 29 

Concentrated  Feeds,  Description 

and  Definition  29 

Condition  of  Pastures  47 

Conditions  Influencing  Margin  of 

Profit,  Other  50 

Constipation  81 

Constipation  in  New  Born  Calves 81 

Constitution  and  Breeding  Essential  22 

Continental  Gluten  Feed 30 

Corn  29 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal 30 

Corn,  Length  to  Cut  for  Silage 36 

Corn  in  Silo,  Distribution  Important..  36 
Corn  and  Sugar  Beet  Tops,  Silage 

from  37 

Cornstalk  Disease 81 

Cornstalk  Disease,  Preventative 

Treatment  82 

Cotton  Seed  Meal  and  Feed 32 

Cow,  Dairy,  Care  and  Feed 23-33 

Cow,  Dairy,  Parts  of 16 

Cow,  Dairy,  Score  Card  for 17 

Cow  Drenching  a 73 

Cow,  None  Perfect 21 

Cow  Pox  82 

Cows  and  Bulls,  Barrenness  in 75 

Cows,  Calving  Time,  Care  of 24 

Cows,  Care  of  in  Summer  Time 25 

Cows,  Care  of  in  Winter  Time 25 

Cows,  Common  Deficiencies  in 21 


STOCK    INDEX 


429 


PAGE. 

Cows,    Dairy,   Feeding 23 

Cows,    Dairy,    Judging 15 

Cows,    Dairy,    Soiling   Crops   vs. 

Silage   for    33 

Cows,  Dairy,  Succession  of  Soiling 

Crops   for    33 

Cows  of  Dairy  Type  and  Breeds 

^Essential  for  Success 13 

Cows,  Disadvantages  of  Buying 14 

Cows,  Good  Family,  Tends  to  Insure 

Good   23 

Cows  Need  Room  for  Digestive  Organs  18 

Cows,  Points  on   24 

Cows,  Profit  Producing  15 

Crops,  Soiling  vs.  Silage  for  Dairy 

Cows 33 

Crops,  Soiling,  Succession  for  Dairy 

Cows 33 

Crops  Suitable  for  Silo 35 

Cross-Breed   Animals    3 

Cross-Breeding    o 

Crude  Fiber,  Feeds  29 


D. 

Dairy  Barn   37 

Dairy  Barn  Work,  Schedule  for  Winter  25 

Dairy  Calves,  Raising 39 

Dairy  Cattle,  Characteristics 13 

Dairy  Cattle  Production  and 

Management     13-23 

Dairy  Cow,   Care  and  Feed 23-33 

Dairy  Cow,  Parts  of 16 

Dairy  Cow,  Score  Card  for 17 

Dairy  Cows,  Feeding 23 

Dairy  Cows,  Home-made  Grain 

Mixture  for 26 

Dairy  Cows,  Judging 15 

Dairy  Cows  Soiling  Crops  vs.  Silage  for  26 
Dairy  Cows,  Succession  of  Soiling 

Crops  for 33 

Dairy    Farm    Organization 33 

Pairy  Feeds,  Mixed 32 

Dairy  Herd,  Establishing 14 

Dairy  Herd,  Raise  Heifer  Calves  to 

Maintain     14 

Dairy  Rations,  Buying  Feeds  for 29 

Dairy  Rations,  Selection  of  Feeds  for.   26 

Dairy    Sire    39 

Dairy  Temperament  and  Milk 

Production    18 

Dairy  Types  and  Breeds  of  Cows, 

Essential  for  Success   13 

Dairying  as  an  Industry  13 

Deficiencies,  Common  in  Cows 21 

Dehorning  Calves 82 

Dehorning  Calves  with  Caustic 

Potash    43 

Digestive   Organs,   The 71 

Digestive  Organs,  Cows  Need  Room 

for    18 


PAGE. 

Disease,  Cornstalk  gl 

Disease,  Foot  and  Mouth 84 

Disease,  Loco  ]  92 

Diseases  74 

Diseases  of  Cattle 62-100 

Diseases  of  Cattle,  General 

Symptoms  (^.70 

Diseases  of  Cattle,  Treatment 71-100 

Diseases  of  Stock,  Guide  to 61 

Distillers'  Grains,  Dried '.'.'.'.'.  31 

Distribution  of  Corn  in  Silo 

Important  35 

Drenching  a  Cow ,  73 

Dried  Beet  Pulp 32 

Dried  Brewers'  Grains  31 

Dried  Distillers'  Grains 31 

Drugs,  Action  of  in  Cattle  and 

Horses  73 

Dry  Matter,  Feeds  .,..'...'.'.'.'.  27 

Dysentery,  Chronic '.  82 

E. 

Economic  Feed,  Silage  35 

Eczema  32 

Elbow  Chapped  80 

Emmer  or  Speltz .. ,  31 

Enteritis — Inflammation  of  the 

Bowels  89 

Equipment  for  Cattle  Feeding 53 

Establishing  a  Dairy  Herd 14 

Eversipn  of  the  Womb 84 

Eye  Pink  94 

Eyes,  Sore — Inflammation  of  the 

Eyes    go 

F. 

Factors  that  Insure  Success  in 

Animal  Breeding 3 

Family,  Good,  Tends  to  Insure  Good 

Cows  23 

Farm  Animals,  Importance  of 1 

Farm  Organization,  Dairy 33 

Fat  Cattle,  How  to  Ship 55 

Fat,  Feeds  29 

Feeding  Cattle,  Equipment  for 53 

Fattening  Cattle  in  Feed  Lot 48 

Fattening  Cattle,  General  Care 54 

Fattening  Cattle  on  Grass 48 

Fattening  Cattle,  Grooming 54 

Fattening  Cattle,  Salt  and  Water  for 54 

Fattening  Steers,  Rations  Suitable  for.  51 

Feed,  Buckwheat  or  Bran 31 

Feed  and  Care  of  Dairy  Cow 23-33 

Feed,  Continental  Gluten  30 

Feed,  Full,  Getting  Steers  on 52 

Feed,  Hominy  30 

Feed  Lot,  Fattening  Cattle  in 48 

Feed  and  Meal,  Cotton  Seed 32 

Feed,  Silage  and  Economic 35 


430 


THE   RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


PAGE. 

Feeders  and  Stockers,  Production 45 

Feeding  the  Breeding  Herd 57 

Feeding  Dairy  Cows  23 

Feeding  Margin    50 

Feeds,    Barley    31 

Feeds,   Buying  for  Dairy  Rations ~9 

Feeds,    Carbohydrates    29 

Feeds,  Composition  of  27 

Feeds,  Concentrated    29 

Feeds,  Concentrated,  Corn  and  Cob 

Meal    30 

Feeds,  Concentrated,  Flour  or  Wheat 

Middlings 30 

Feeds,  Concentrated,  Gluten  Meal 

and   Gluten  Feed    30 

Feeds,  Concentrated  Red  Dog  Flour 30 

Feeds,  Concentrated,  Standard  Wheat 

Middlings  or  Shorts    30 

Feeds,  Concentrated,  Wheat  Bran 30 

Feeds,  Concentrated,  Wheat  By- 

Products    30 

Feeds,  Crude  Fiber   29 

Feeds,  for  Dairy  Rations,  Selection  of  26 

Feeds,  Dry  Matter  27 

Feeds,  Fat  29 

Feeds,  Mixed  Dairy 32 

Feeds,   Oats    31 

Feeds,  Protein  29 

Feeds,  Rye    31 

Feeds,  Speltz  or  Emmer 31 

Fever,    Milk    93 

Fever,  Texas    97 

Fill  Silo,  When  36 

Finished  Cattle,  Advantages  in 50 

Flies,  Keeping  Them  off  Stock 86 

Flour,  Red  Dog 30 

Flour  or  Wheat  Middlings 30 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease 84 

Fourth  Stomach,  Inflammation  of 89 

Frost  Bites  86 


G. 

General  Purpose  Type,  Cattle 

General   Symptoms,  Cattle  Diseases. 62 
Gluten  Meal  and  Gluten  Feed.. 

Gnat,  Buffalo   \ 

Good  Family,  Tends  to  Insure  Good 

Cows    

Grade  Animals,  Advantage  in  Breeding 

Grade  and  High  Grade  Animals 

Grain  and  Hay,  Feed  Calf  Carefully.. 

Grain  Mixture  for  Calves 

Grain  Mixtures  for  Dairy  Cattle, 

Home-made    

Grains,  Brewers'  Wet 

Grains,  Dried  Brewers' 

Grains,  Dried  Distillers' 

Grass,  Fattening  Cattle  on 

Grazing   Cattle    


9 

•70 
30 
SO 

23 
4 
3 

40 
41 

26 

32 
31 

31 

48 
47 


PAGE. 

Grooming,    Fattening   Cattle 54 

Grubs  in  the  Back  86 

Guide  to  Diseases  of  Stock 61 

Guide,   Explanation  of    61 

Guide,  How  to  Use 61 

H. 

Handling  and  Production  of  Market 

Milk     38 

Hay  and  Grain,  Feed  Calf  Carefully...   40 
Heifer  Calves,  Raise,  to  Maintain 

the  Dairy  Herd  14 

Herd,  Breeding  Beef,  General  Care.'.!'.   56 

Herd,  Breeding,  Feeding  57 

Herd,  Dairy,  Establishing 14 

Herd,   Dairy,  Raise  Heifer  Calves 

to   Maintain    14 

Hernia   or    Vaginal    Rupture 100 

Hernia,   Ventral — Rupture 96 

High-Grade  and  Grade  Animals 3 

Hind  Parts,  Paralysis  of,  During 

Pregnancy    94 

Hogs   Should   Follow   Cattle 53 

Home-made  Grain  Mixture  for  Dairy 

Cows     26 

Home  Prevention  for  Abortion 75 

Hominy  Feed,  Hominy  Meal  and 

Hominy  Chop    30 

Horses  and  Cattle,  Action  of  Drugs  in  73 

How  to  Make   Live  Stock  Pay 1 

How  to  Ship  Fat  Cattle 55 

How  to  Start  Breathing  in  Young 

Calves     79 

How  to  Use  Guide  61 

Hulls,  Buckwheat  31 

I. 

Impaction  of  the  Omasum  or  Third 

Stomach     86 

Impaction  of  the  Rumen 87 

Importance  of  Farm  Animals 1 

Impure   Blood    88 

Inbreeding     2 

Indigestion 88 

Indigestion  in  Calves 88 

Industry,  Dairying  as  an 13 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels— Enteritis 89 

Inflammation  of  the  Eyes — Sore 

Eyes    ge 

Inflammation  of  the  Fourth  Stomach.   89 

Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys    89 

Inflammation  of  the  Liver   90 

Inflammation  of  the  Udder   90 

Insect  and  Snake  Bites 90 

J. 

Jaundice— Yellow    100 

Jaw,   Lump   92 

Joint,    Open    94 

Judging  Dairy  Cows  .15 


STOCK    INDEX 


431 


K. 

Kidneys,  Inflammation  of  the. 


PAGE. 
.  89 


L. 

Leg,   Black   75 

Leg,   Black,   Prevention   for 76 

Length  to  Cut  Corn  for  Silage 36 

Letting,    Blood    78 

Lice   92 

Lice  and  Ringworm,  Treatment  of 

Calves  for    45 

Linseed  Oil  Meal   32 

Live   Breeding   2 

Live  Stock  Breeders  Calling 5 

Live  Stock   Breeders,  Classified 4 

Live  Stock  Breeding  and  Manage- 
ment      1-10 

Live  Stock,  How  to  Make  Pay 1 

Live  Stock,  Pure  Bred,  Knowledge 

and  Skill  Required  to  Breed 5 

Live  Stock,  Pure  Bred,  Wherein  it  is 

More  Expensive 4 

Liver,  Inflammation  of  the 90 

Location  of  Silo   36 

Locked  Jaw  or  Tetanus 92 

Loco  Disease  92 

Lump  Jaw  92 

Lung  Worm  in  Calves 92 

M. 

Maggots  in  Wounds  and  Screw  Worms  92 

Malt  Sprouts  32 

Management  and  Breeding  of  Live 

Stock  1-10 

Management  and  Feeding,  Practical 

Suggestions  on  23 

Management  and  Production  Dairy 

Cattle  13-23 

Management  and  Selection  of  Bulls..  59 

Mange  ; 92 

Margin,  Feeding  50 

Margin,  Other  Conditions  Influencing.  50 
Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Cattle..  49 
Market  Milk,  Production  and  Handling..  38 

Marketing  Cattle  54 

Matter,  Dry,  Feeds  27 

Meal,  Alfalfa  32 

Meal  and  Feed,  Cotton  Seed 32 

Meal  Gruel,  Oil,  Raising  Calves  on....  41 

Meal,  Hominy  30 

Meal,  Linseed  Oil  32 

Meat  Purposes,  Cattle  for  45 

Methods  of  Rearing  Beef  Calves 57 

Middlings,  Buckwheat  31 

Middlings,  Standard  Wheat  or  Shorts.  30 

Milk,  Bloody  79 

Milk,  Fever  93 

Milk,  First,  Give  Calf 40 

Milk,  Market,  Production  and  Handling  38 


PAGE. 

Milk,  Method,  Whole  42 

Milk  Production  and  Dairy 

Temperament  is 

Milk  Scale  and  Tester  Increase 

Profits  23 

Milk,  Stringy  97 

Mixed  Dairy  Feeds  32 

Moisture  Necessary  for  Good  Silage..  36 

Mongrel  and  Scrub  Animals 3 

Mouth  and  Foot  Disease  84 

Mouth,  Sore — Stomatitis  96 

N. 

Natural    Breeding    2 

Navel    Rupture    93 

Necessity  for  Types  and  Breeds 1 

New  Born  Calves,  Constipation  in 81 

o. 

Oats  31 

Oil  Meal  Gruel,  Raising  Calves  on 41 

Oil  Meal,  Linseed  32 

Omasum  or  Third  Stomach, 

Impaction  of  86 

Open  Joint  94 

Organization,  Dairy  Farm 33 

Organs,  The  Digestive  71 

Organs,  Digestive,  Cows  Need 

Room  for is 

Organs,  Respiratory  72 

Organs,  Urinary  72 

Out-Crossing  3 

P. 
Paralysis  of  Hind  Parts  During 

Pregnancy  94 

Parts  of  a  Dairy  Cow 16 

Pasture   Conditions    47 

Pasture,  Turning  Cattle  on 48 

Peritonitis    94 

Pink  Eye  94 

Pleurisy 94 

Pneumonia   95 

Poisoning,  Blood    78 

Pox,   Cow    82 

Practical  Suggestions  on  Feeding 

and  Management 23 

Pregnancy,  During,  Paralysis  of  Hind 

Parts  94 

Prevention  for  Black  Leg 76 

Prevention,  Home,  for  Abortion 75 

Production  of  Baby  Beef 55 

Production,  Beef  Cattle 45-55 

Production,  Cattle 7-11 

Production  and  Handling  Market 

Milk     38 

Production  and  Management,  Dairy 

Cattle    13-23 

Production  of  Pure  Bred  Beef  Cattle.  45 
Production,  Records  of,  Sure  Test....  23 
Production  of  Stockers  and  Feeders...  45 
Profit-Producing  Cows  15 


432 


THE   RURAL   EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


Profits  Milk  Scale  and  Tester  Increases  23 

Promiscuous  Breeding  - 

Protein,  Feeds  29 

Pulp,  Dried  Beet 32 

Pure  Bred  Animals  3 

Pure  Bred  Animals,  Advantage  in 

Breeding  4 

Pure  Bred  Beef  Cattle,  Production 45 

Pure  Bred  Live  Stock,  Knowledge 

and  Skill  Required  to  Breed 5 

Pure  Bred  Live  Stock,  Wherein  it  is 

More  Expensive  4 


R. 

Raise  Heifer  Calves  to  Maintain  the 

Dairy    Herd    14 

Raising  Dairy  Calves 39 

Rations,   Dairy,   Buying  Feeds  for 29 

Rations,  Dairy  Selection  of  Feeds  for.  26 
Rations,  Suitable  for  Fattening  Steers.   51 

Rearing  Beef  Calves,  Methods 57 

Records  of  Production  a  Sure  Test..  ..   23 

Red  Dog  Flour  30 

Respiratory    Organs    72 

Retained  Afterbirth  75 

Ring    Worm    95 

Ringworm  and  Lice,  Treatment  of 

Calves    45 

Rumen,  Impaction  of  the 87 

Rupture,    Navel    93 

Rupture,  Vaginal,  or  Hernia 100 

Rupture,   Ventral   Hernia    96 

Rye    31 


S. 

Salt  and  Water  for  Fattening  Cattle..  54 
Schedule  for  Dairy  Barn  Work 

for  Winter  25 

Score  Card  for  Beef  Cattle  46 

Score  Card  for  Dairy  Cow 17 

Scours  96 

Scours,  Precautions  Against 42 

Scours,  Treating  Calves  for 42 

Screenings,  Wheat  31 

Screw  Worms  and  Maggots  in 

Wounds  92 

Scrub  and  Mongrel  Animals 3 

Sealing  the  Surface,  Silage 37 

Seed  Meal  and  Feed,  Cotton 32 

Selection  of  Feeds  for  Dairy  Rations.  26 

Selection  and  Management  of  Bulls...  59 

Self- Feeder,  Use  of  52 

Sharp  Wedges  Indicate  Temperament.  19 

Ship  Fat  Cattle,  How  to.' 55 

Shorts  or  Standard  Wheat  Middlings.  30 

Silage  an  Economic  Feed 35 

Silage,  Length  to  Cut  Corn 36 

Silage,  Moisture  Necessary  for  Good.  36 


PAGE. 

Silage  Must  be  Well  Packed 36 

Silage,  Sealing  the  Surface 37 

Silage  and  Silos  35 

Silage  vs.  Soiling  Crops  for  Dairy 

Cows  33 

Silage  from  Sugar  Beet  Tops  and 

Shock  Corn  37 

Silo,  Corn  in,  Distribution  Important.  36 

Silo,  Crops  Suitable  for  35 

Silo,  Location  36 

Silo,  Troubles  Not  Serious  36 

Silo,  When  to  Fill  j 36 

Silos  and  Silage 35 

Sire,  Dairy  39 

Snake,  Bites  and  Insect  90 

Soiling  Crops  vs.  Silage  for  Dairy 

Cows  33 

Soiling  Crops,  Succession  for  Dairy 

Cows  33 

Sore  Eyes — Inflammation  of  the  Eyes ...  96 

Sore  Mouth — Stomatitis  yo 

Sore  Throat  97 

Speltz  or  Emmer 31 

Sprains  97 

Sprouts,  Malt  32 

Stables  for  Calves,  Keep  Clean 41 

Staggers,  Blind  76 

Stags  49 

Start  Breathing  in  Young  Calves, 

How  to  79 

Steers,  Getting  on  Full  Feed  52 

Steers,  Suitable  Rations  for  Fattening  51 

Steers,  Use  of  Self- Feeder 52 

Stifle  97 

Stitching  and  Bandaging  Wounds 73 

Stock  Breeding,  Live,  and  Manage- 
ment   1-10 

Stock  Flies,  Keeping  them  off 86 

Stock,  Guide  to  Diseases  of 61 

Stock.  Live,  Breeders  Calling 5 

Stock,  Live,  Breeders  Classified  4 

Stock,  Live,  How  to  Make  Pay 1 

Stock,  Live,  Pure  Bred,  Wherein  it 

is  More  Expensive  4 

Stockers  and  Feeders,  Production 45 

Stomach,  Fourth,  Inflammation  of....  89 

Stomach  Worms  in  Calves  97 

Stomatitis — Sore  Mouth  96 

Stricture  of  the  Teats  or  Blocked 

Teats  78 

Stringy  Milk  97 

Sugar  Beet  Tops  and  Corn,  Silage 

From  37 

Suggestions,  Practical,  on  Feeding 

and  Management  23 

Summer  Time,  Care  of  Cows 25 

Sunstroke  97 

Symptoms,  General,  Cattle  Diseases. 62-70 


STOCK    INDEX 


433 


T. 

PAGE. 

Teats,  Chapped  80 

Teats,  Stricture  of,  or  Blocked 78 

Temperament,  Dairy,  and  Milk 

Production  18 

Temperament,  Sharp  Wedges  Indicates  19 

Test,  Records  of  Production  Sure 23 

Test,  Tuberculin  98 

Tester  and  Milk  Scale  Increase 

Profits  23 

Tetanus,  Lock  Jaw,  or 92 

Texas  Fever  97 

Third  Stomach,  Omasum  or, 

Impaction  of  86 

Throat,  Sore  97 

Treatment  for  Diseases  of  Cattle.  .71-100 

Troubles,  Silo,  Not  Serious 36 

Tuberculin  Test  98 

Tuberculosis  98 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle  10 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cows, 

Essentials  for  Success  13 

Types  and  Breeds,  Necessity  for 1 

Types  of  Cattle  7 

Type,  General  Purpose,  Cattle 9 

U. 

Udder,  Inflammation  of  the 90 

Udder,  Well  Developed   19 

Urinary   Organs    72 

y. 

Vaginal  Rupture  or  Hernia 100 

Ventral  Hernia — Rupture 96 


W. 

PAGE. 

Warts  100 

Water  and  Salt  for  Fattening  Cattle..  54 
Wedges,  Sharp,  Indicate  Temperament..  19 

Well  Developed  Udder  19 

Wet  Grains,  Brewers'  32 

Wheat  Bran  30 

Wheat  By-Products 30 

Wheat  Middlings  or  Flour  30 

Wheat  Middlings,  Standard  or  Shorts.  30 

Wheat  Screenings 31 

Whey,  How  Used  for  Calves 42 

Whole  Milk  Method  42 

Winter  Schedule  for  Dairy  Barn  Work...  25 

Winter  Time,  Care  of  Cows 25 

Womb,  Eversion  of  84 

Worm,  Ring  95 

Worms,  Lung,  in  Calves  92 

Worms,  Screw,  and  Maggots  in 

Wounds  92 

Worms,  Stomach,  in  Calves 97 

Wounds,  Bandaging  and  Stitching....  73 
Wounds,  Maggots  in,  and  Screw 

Worms     .  98 


Y. 


Yellows — Jaundice    100 

Young  Calves,  Breathing  in  (How  to 
Start)     79 


HORSES 


PAGE. 

Abortion    152 

Action  of  Drugs  in  Horses 135 

Adaptability   of   Mules 127 

Age  to  Castrate  Colt 118 

Age  of  Horse,  How  to  tell  the 127 

Age,  Proper,  for  Service 118 

Alfalfa  and  Clover  Hay  for  Horses 122 

Amount  of  Grains  to  Feed 123 

Amount  of  Hay  to  Feed 122 

Assisting  at  Birth,  Care  in 

Foaling   Time    112 

Azoturia  152 


B. 

Balls  or  Pills  135 

Bandages  and  Blankets,  Care  of  the 

Sick  and   Injured    133 

Barrenness    I52 


PAGE. 

Big  Head    153 

Big  Leg  153 

Birth  at,   Care  of   Foal 114 

Birth,  to  Four  and  One  Half  Years 

Old,  Teeth    127 

Blanketing,    Clipping  and    Grooming.  .124 

Blankets  and  Bandages   133 

Blemishes  Possible  on  a  Horse 138 

Blind   Staggers    158 

Blood    Poisoning    158 

Bog    Spavin    158 

Boil,  Shoe   175 

Bone    Spavin 158 

Bots     1 159 

Breeding  the  Draft  Horse   102 

Breeding  Light   Horses 104 

Breeds  and  Types  of  Horses 103 

Bronchitis    159 

Brood    Mare,    The 105 

Brood  Mare,  Feed  for  the 114 


434 


THE   RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


PAGE. 


Bruise,  Stone   177 

Buying  a  Stallion 120 

Buying  the  Work  Horse 121 


C. 


160 


Capped    Hock    

Care  in  Assisting  at  Birth, 

Foaling  Time  112 

Care  and  Feed,  The,  of  the  Stallion 118 

Care  of  the  Feet  and  Shoeing. 131 

Care  of  Foal,  at  Birth 114 

Care  of  the  Foal's  Feet 117 

Care  of  Harness  and  Shoulders 125 

Care  and  Management  of  the  Work 

Horse    121 

Care  of  the  Sick  and  Injured 133 

Caring  for  Weak  Foals 116 

Casting  or  Throwing  a  Horse 132 

Castrate   Colt,  Age  to 118 

Castration    135 

Castration,  Swelling  after 136 

Catarrh     160 

Classification    of   Mules 126 

Cleanliness,    Foaling  Time 112 

Clipping,    Grooming  and    Blanketing.  .124 

Clover  and  Alfalfa  Hay  for  Horses 122 

Colic    161 

Colic,   Spasmodic    176 

Colt,  Castrate,  Age  to 118 

Comfortable,   Making   Patient 133 

Condition  of  the  Teeth 131 

Constipation   i .  . . .  161 

Corns    161 

Curb    162 

D 

Diarrhea 162 

Disease,    Loco 169 

Diseases  of  Horses 139 

Diseases   of   Horses,   Treatment 

for    152-181 

Distemper    162 

Draft    Horse,    Breeding  the 102 

Draft  vs.  Light  Breeds  on  the  Farm.  ..102 

Draft  Horses,  Score  Card  for 106 

Drench,    The 135 

Dropsy   163 

Drugs,   Action  of,   in   Horses 135 


Enteritis     163 

Exercising  and   Grooming  the 
Stallion     


Farcy    or    Glanders 166 

Farm,  Light  Breeds  vs.  Draft  on  the.  ..102 
Feed,  Amount  of   Grain   to...  ..123 


PAGE. 

Feed,  Amount  of  Hay  to 122 

Feed  for  the  Brood  Mare 114 

Feed  and  Care,  The,  of  the  Stallion. .  .118 

Feeding  Grain,  Precautions  in 123 

Feeding  the  Stallion 119 

Feeding  and  Watering  the  Work 

Horse  122 

Feeding  and  Weaning  the  Foal 116 

Feet,  Foal's,  Care  of  the 117 

Feet,  Shoeing  and  Care  of  the 131 

Fever,  Milk 170 

Fever,  Swamp 179 

Fistula  and  Poll-Evil 163 

Fitting,  Shoe 132 

Five  to  Twenty-two  Years  Old, 

Teeth  131 

Foal,  The,  Feeding  and  Weaning 116 

Foal,  Orphan,  Raising  the 116 

Foal  The,  Training 117 

Foaling,  Mare,  Stall  Suitable  for.... Ill 
Foaling  Time,  Care  in  Assisting  at 

Birth  112 

Foaling  Time,  Cleanliness 112 

Foaling  Time,  The  Mare  at ill 

Foal's  Feet,  Care  of  the 117 

Foals  Navel,  Solution  for  Saturating. .  .114 

Food  for  Sick  Animals 134 

Founder  164 

Four  and  One  Half  Years  Old,  From 

Birth  to,  Teeth 127 

Fracture  166 


Galls  165 

General  Symptoms,  Diseases  of 

Horses 139-151 

Giving  a  Horse  Medicine 134 

Glanders  or  Farcy 166 

Grain  to  Feed,  Amount  of 123 

Grain,  Grinding 124 

Grain  Mixtures  for  Horses,  Suitable..  .123 

Grain,  Precautions  in  Feeding 123 

Grinding  Grain 124 

Grooming,  Clipping  and  Blanketing. .  .124 
Grooming  and  Exercising  the 

Stallion    119 

H 

Harness  and  Shoulders,  Care  of 125 

Hay  to  Feed,  Amount  of 122 

Hay  for  Horses,  Clover  and  Alfalfa..  122 

Head,   Big 153 

Heaves    167 

Hobble    Method   for   Old    Horses, 

Casting  or  Throwing 133 

Hock,    Capped 160 

Horses,  Blemishes  Possible  on  a 138 

Horse  Medicine,  Giving  a 134 

Horse    Production 101-181 

Horse,  Throwing  or  Casting  a 132 


STOCK    INDEX 


435 


PAGE. 

Horses,  Action  of  Drugs  in 135 

Horses,    Diseases   of 139 

Horses,   Judging 104 

Horses,   Light,   Breeding 104 

Horses,    Market   Classes   and   Sub 

Classes   of 101 

Horses,  Silage  for 122 

Horses,  Suitable  Grain  Mixture  for 123 

Horses,    Watering 124 

I 

Indigestion    167 

Influenza  or  Pink  Eye 171 

Injured  and  Sick,  Care  of  the 133 

Intestinal  Worms . .  167 


Joints,    Open 170 

Judging    Horses 104 

K 
Knuckling    169 


Lameness,  How  to  Locate 136 

Lameness,   Indications   of 137 

Lameness,    Location   of 137 

Leg,   Big    153 

Light  Breeds  vs.  Draft  on  the  Farm...  102 

Light  Horses,  Breeding 104 

Light  Horses,  Score  Card  for 108 

Locate  Lameness,  How  to 136 

Location,    Lameness    137 

Lockjaw  169 

Loco  Disease  169 


PAGE. 

Mule  Production  126 

Mules,  Adaptability  of 127 

Mules,  Classification  of 126 

Mules,  Types  of 126 

N 

Navel,  Foal's  Solution  for  Saturating.  .114 
Number  of  Mares  Stallion  Should 
Serve  118 

O 

One-Man  Method,  Casting  or 

Throwing    133 

Open   Joints 170 

Orphan  Foal,  Raising  the 116 

Owners,  Suggestions  for  Stallion 120 


Paralysis    170 

Patient   Comfortable,   Making 133 

Pills  or  Balls 135 

Pink  Eye  or  Influenza 171, 

Pneumonia    171 

Poisoning,  Blood   158 

Poll  Evil    ."..• 172 

Poll  Evjl  and  Fistula 163 

Precaution,  A,  in  the  Use  of  Stallions.  .120 

Precautions  in  Feeding  Grain 123 

Pregnant  Mare,  The 107 

Preparation  for  Throwing 133 

Price  of  Horses  for  Year  1916, 

Monthly  Average   102 

Production,    Mule    126 

Proper  Age  for  Service 118 


M 
Maggots,  Screw- Worms,  in  Wound....  175 

Making  Patient  Comfortable 133 

Management  and  Care  of  the  Work 

Horse 121 

Mange     170 

Mare,  The,   Brood 105 

Mare    Foaling,    Stall   Suitable   for Ill 

Mare,  The,  at  Foaling  Time Ill 

Mare,  The,   Pregnant 107 

Mares,  Number  of,  Stallion  Should 

Serve  118 

Mares  and  Stallions,  Sterility  in 120 

Market   Classes  and   Sub-Classes  of 

Horses    101 

Market  Classes  and  Types 101 

Medicine,  Giving  a  Horse 134 

Medicine,  How  to  Make  a  Horse 

Swallow   I35 

Milk  Fever    170 

Mixtures  for  Horses,  Suitable  Grain..  123 
Monthly  Average  Price  of  Horses  for 

Year  1916 102 


Q 

Quarter-Crack    172 

Quittor    172 

R 

Raising  the  Orphan  Foal 116 

Rheumatism    173 

Ringbone   173 

Roaring    173 


Salt,  Providing  124 

Score  Card  for  Draft  Horses 106 

Score  Card  for  Light  Horses 108 

Scratches 175 

Screw-Worms  or  Maggots  in 

Wounds  175 

Serve,  Number  of  Mares  Stallion 

Should  118 

Service,  Proper  Age  for 118 

Shoe  Boil 175 


436 


THE   RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


PAGE. 

Shoe  Fitting 132 

Shoeing  and  Care  of  the  Feet 131 

Shoulders  and  Harness,  Care  of 125 

Sick  Animals,  Food  for 134 

Sick  and  Injured,  Care  of  the 133 

Side-Line  Method,  Throwing  or 

Casting  138 

Side  Supports  134 

Silage  for  Horses 122 

Slings  134 

Solution  for  Saturating  Foal's 

Navel  114 

Sore  Throat 175 

Spasmodic  Colic  176 

Spavin,  Bog  •  • 158 

Spavin,  Bone  158 

Splints  176 

Sprains  176 

Stabling  Horses 125 

Staggers,  Blind  158 

Staggers,  Stomach  • 177 

Stall  Suitable  for  Mare  Foaling Ill 

Stallion,  Buying  a 120 

Stallion,  The,  Care  and  Feed  of 118 

Stallion,  Exercising  and  Grooming 

the  119 

Stallion,  Feeding  the 119 

Stallion  Owners,  Suggestions  for 120 

Stallion  Should  Serve,  Number  of 

Mares  . . 118 

Stallions  and  Mares,  Sterility  in 120 

Stallions,  A  Precaution  in  the  Use  of..  120 

Sterility  in  Stallions  and  Mares 120 

Stifled  177 

Stomach  Staggers  177 

Stone  Bruise 177 

Stringhalt  178 

Sub  Classes  and  Market  Classes  of 

Horses  101 

Suggestions  for  Stallion  Owners 120 

Suggestions,  Work  Horse 121 

Sunstroke  179 

Swallow  Medicine,  How  to  Make  a 

Horse  135 

Swamp  Fever 179 

Sweeny 179 

Swelling  After  Castration 136 

Symptoms,  General  Diseases  of 

Horses  139-151 

Syringe,  The  135 


PAGE. 

Teeth,   Condition   of  the m 

Teeth,  At  Different  Ages 127 

Teeth,  Five  Years  to  Twenty-two 

Years    Old 131 

Teeth,  From  Birth  to  Four  and  One- 
Half  Years   Old 127 

Teeth,    Names   of 127 

Teeth,  Two  Sets  of 127 

Thoroughpin     180 

Throat,    Sore 175 

Throwing  or  Casting,  Hobble  Method 

for  Old  Horses 13:$ 

Throwing  or  Casting  a  Horse 132 

Throwing  or  Casting,  One  Man 

Method   133 

Throwing  or  Casting,  Side-Line 

Metlwd  132 

Throwing,  Preparation  for 133 

Thrush    180 

Training  the   Foal 117 

Treatment  for  Diseases  of  Horses . .  152-181 
Twenty-two  Years  Old,  Five  to,  Teeth.  131 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses 103 

Types  and  Market  Classes 101 

Types  of  Mules 126 

U 
Use  of  Stallions,  A  Precaution  in  the..  120 


W 

Warts  180 

Watering  and  Feeding  the  Work 

Horse  122 

Watering  Horses  124 

Weak  Foals,  Caring  for 116 

Weaning  and  Feeding  the  Foal 116 

Whites  180 

Wind  Puffs 181 

Work  Horse,  Buying  the 121 

Work  Horse,  Care  and  Management 

of  the  121 

Work  Horse,  Feeding  and  Watering 

the  122 

Work  Horse  Suggestions 121 

Worms,  Intestinal 167 

Wounds  181 

Wounds,  Screw-Worms  or  Maggots  in.  175 


SHEEP 


PAGE. 

Adaptability   of   Sheep 183 

Anthrax    203 

B 

Bloat   203 

Bloat  in  Sheep 197 


PAGE. 

Bloody   Flux— Dysentery 206 

Blow    Flies,    Maggots    from 209 

Breed,    Choosing    184 

Breeding  Flock,  Rams  for 193 

Breeds  and  Types  of  Sheep 183,  185 

Bronchitis    .  203 


STOCK    INDEX 


437 


Card,  Score,  for  Mutton  Sheep I  N'.I 

Care  of  Ewe  Flock,  Suggestions 188 

Castrating  and  Docking  Lambs 196 

Catarrh — Influenza   204 

Choosing  a  Breed 184 

Colic — Stretches    "...  204 

Constipation  in  Lambs  or  Sheep 205 

Creep,   Lamb    195 

D 

Diarrhea 206 

Dipping  Ewes  and   Lambs 197 

Diseases,  General  Symptoms 200-202 

Diseases  of  Sheep 200-212 

Diseases,    Treatment    203-212 

Docking    206 

Docking  and  Castrating  Lambs 196 

Drenching   205 

Dysentery— Bloody  Flux 206 


PAGE. 

Lambs  and    Ewes,   Dipping l'.»7 

Lambs,    Marketing    l'.)7 

Lambs,  Marking   I'.M; 

Lambs,    Rearing    !'.»:! 

Lambs,  Suitable  Grain  Mixture  for....  195 

Lambs,  Weaning    197 

Lung    Worms    208 

M 

Maggots  from  Blow  Flies 209 

Marketing    Lambs    197 

Marking   Lambs    196 

Mating   Season    186 

Method  of  Shearing 191 

Mutton  Sheep,  Score  Card  for 189 

N 

Nasal  Gleet 208 

Necessary   Requirements 183 

Nodular  Disease..  ..209 


Ewe  Flock,  Care  of,  Suggestions 188 

Ewe   Flock,   Feeding 188 

Ewe  Flock,  Selection  of 184 

Ewes  and  Lambs,  Dipping 197 

Eyes,    Inflammation    of 208 


Fattening  Sheep    198 

Fattening,  Suitable   Rations 198 

Feeding  the  Ewe  Flock 188 

Feeding  Period   198 

Fleece  Tying   191 

Flies,   Blow,  Maggots  from 209 

Flock,    Breeding,    Rams   for 193 

Flock,  Ewe,  Care  of,  Suggestions 188 

Flock,    Ewe,    Feeding 188 

Flock,  Ewe,  Selection  of 184 

Flock,  Shearing  the 191 

Fluke  Worms 207 

Foot  Rot   ' 207 


General    Symptoms,    Diseases 200-202 

Gleet,  Nasal    208 

Grain  Mixture,  Suitable  for  Lambs 195 

Grubs  in  the  Head 208 

H 
Helpful  Suggestions 199 


Inflammation  of  the  Eyes 20 

Influenza,   Catarrh    204 


Lamb    Creep    195 

Lambs,  Castrating  and  Docking 19 


Period    of    Feeding 198 

Pneumonia    209 

Production  of  Sheep 183-199 

R 

Rams  for   Breeding  Flock 193 

Rape,  Use  of 197 

Rations    Suitable   for   Fattening 198 

Rearing  Lambs   193 

Requirements,    Necessary    183 

Rot,  Foot 207 


Scab     211 

Score  Card  for  Mutton  Sheep 189 

Season,  Mating   186 

Selection  of  Ewe   Flock 184 

Shearing  the  Flock 191 

Sfiearing,  Method  of 191 

Sheep,  Diseases 200-212 

Sheep  Production   183-199 

Stomach  of  Sheep 21 

Stomach  Worms 211 

Stretches— Colic    204 

Suggestions,  Helpful 199 

Suitable  Grain  Mixture  for  Lambs 195 

Symptoms,  General,  Diseases 200-202 


Ticks  212 

Treatment  for  Diseases 203-212 

Tying  the  Fleece 191 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep 183,  185 

W 

Weaning  Lambs 197 

Worms,    Fluke    207 

Worms,  Lung 208 

Worms,  Stomach    211 


438 


THE   RURAL   EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


SWINE 


PAGE. 

Acute    Indigestion 248 

Angina,  Malignant  or  Gangrenous 260 

Anthrax,    Apoplectic 249 

Anthrax    Carbuncle 271 

Aphthous  Fever 248 

Apoplectic  Anthrax  249 

Apoplexy  249 

Appetite,  Morbid 262 

B 

Bacon,  Feeding  for 229 

Bacon  Type 220 

Bacon  Type,   Score   Card 221 

Blind  Staggers 249 

Blood   from   Stomach 250 

Boar,  Castrating 247 

Boar,  Handling  at  Mating  Time 224 

Boar,  Selection  and  Care 222 

Bowels,   Obstruction  of 263 

Breed,  Selection  of  Important 216 

Breeds  and  Types 214,  217 

Bristle,  White    271 

Bronchitis    250 

Brood  Sow,  Motherly  Disposition 

Essential    222 

Brood  Sow,  Selection 216 

Brood  Sows,  Care  of 225 

Buildings  and  Equipment 232 


PAGE. 

Diseases   of   Liver :>oo 

Diseases  of  Swine 234-272 

Diseases,  Treatment  for 247-272 

Disinfection    Measures 333 

Dysentery    252 


Eating  of  Pigs 252 

Economy  of  Pork  Production 213 

Enteritis  252 

Epilepsy  253 

Equipment  and  Buildings 232 

Erysipelas    253 

Eversion     254 

Eyes,  Inflamed   259 


Farrowing  Time,  Difficulties 227 

Farrowing  Time,  Sow  at 225 

Feeders,    Self,    for   Hogs 229 

Feeding  for  Bacon 229 

Feeding  Pregnant  Sows 225 

Feet,  Sore   267 

Fever,  Aphthous  248 

Fever,  Lung 205 

Fever,  Scarlet 267 

Fits  in   Pigs 254 

Founder    267 

Frequency  and  Size  of  Litters 213 


Cancer  in  Tail 250 

(7-arbuncle,  Anthrax   271 

Card,  Score,  Bacon  Type 221 

Card,  Score  for  Lard  Type .....219 

Care   of   Brood   Sows 22J5 

Care  and  Development  of  Pigs 23f 

Care  and  Selection  of  Boar 222 

Castration    . , 247 

Castration  of  Pigs 227 

Catarrh,  Nasal  262 

Cholera  and  Swine  Plague 254 

Classes,    Market    231 

Colds    251 

Colic    251 

Conditioners  for  Hogs 248 

Congestion  of  Lungs 251 

Constipation   251 

Correctives  and  Salt  for  Hogs 226 

Cuts  and  Wounds 272 

D 

Development  and  Care  of  Pigs 227 

Diarrhea  and  Scours 252 

Difficulties  at  Farrowing  Time 227 

Disease,  Scaly  Skin 266 


Gangrenous  Angina  260 

General  Symptoms,  Diseases 234-246 

Gestation    Period    213 

Giving  Medicine  to  Hog 247 

Growing  Pure  Bred  Hogs 232 

Growing  and  Weaning  Pigs 228 

Gum   Mouth 254 

H 

Handling  Boar  at  Mating  Time 224 

Hernia,   Navel    263 

Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague 254 

I 

Indigestion    259 

Indigestion,  Acute    248 

Inflamed  Eyes   259 

Inflamed  Udder  259 

Inflamed  Womb    259 

Inoculation,  Serum 258 

Itch    ..261 


Jaundice   272 


STOCK    INDF.X 


-130 


PAOB. 

Lameness     260 

Lard  Type,  Score  Card  for ::  1  :i 

Lard  Type  Sow 21. s 

Lice   ...280 

Litters,   Frequency  and   Size :>i:; 

Liver  Diseases  260 

Lung  Fever , 265 

Lungs,  Congestion  of 251 

M 

Malignant  or  Gangrenous  Angina 260 

Mange  261 

Market  Classes  231 

Market,  Shipping  to 230 

Marketing  Hogs  230 

Marketing  Pure  Bred  Hogs 232 

Marking  Pigs  228 

Mating  Hogs,  Securing  Results 222 

Mating  Time,  Handling  Boar 224 

Measles  261 

Measures  for  Sanitation,  Disinfection 

and  Quarantine  233 

Medicine,  Giving  to  Hog 247 

Morbid  Appetite  262 

Motherly  Disposition  of  Brood  Sow 

Essential  222 

Mouth,  Gum  254 

N 

Nasal    Catarrh 262 

Navel  Hernia   .  ..263 


O 
Obstruction  of  Bowels..  ..263 


Paralysis    '. 263 

Paralysis  of  Retina 264 

Peritonitis    '. 264 

Pigs,  Care  and  Development 227 

Pigs,  Castrating 247 

Pigs,   Castration   of .227 

Pigs,  Eating  of 252 

Pigs,  Fits  of 254 

Pigs,   Marking 228 

Pigs,  Stunted 268 

Pigs  Weaning  and  Growing 228 

Piles    264 

Plague,  Swine,  and  Cholera 254 

Pleurisy 265 

Pneumonia  or  Lung  Fever 265 

Pork  Production,  Economy  of 213 

Pregnant  Sows,  Feeding 225 

Production,    Swine 213-233 

Pure   Bred   Hogs,   Growing  and 

Marketing    232 


Q 

PAQB. 

Quarantine    Measures    ...........  .... 

Quinsy    ..............................  ..,;:, 


R 
Rate  of  Gain  to  Feed  Consumed  ......  -J14 

Rations,   Suitable   for   Sows  with 

Litters    ............................  226 

Rectum,  Turning  Out  of  ..............  254 

Relation  of  Weight  of  Pigs  to  Feed 

Consumed  and  Rate  of  Gain  ........  214 

Results,  Secured  from  Mating  ........  222 

Retina,    Paralysis   of  ..................  264 

Rheumatism    ........................  266 

Rickets   ..............................  266 

Ridgling,   Castrating    .................  247 

Ringworm   ................  ..266 


Salt  and  Correctives  for  Hogs 226 

Sanitation  Measures  233 

Scab  261 

Scaly  Skin  Disease 266 

Scarlet  Fever  ; 267 

Score  Card  for  Bacon  Type 221 

Score  Card  for  Lard  Type 219 

Scours  and  Diarrhea 252 

Selecting  Brood  Sow 216 

Selection  of  Breed  Important 216 

Selection  and  Care  of  Boar 222 

Self- Feeders  for  Hogs 229 

Serum  Inoculation— Cholera 258 

Shipping  to  Market 230 

Size  and  Frequency  of  Litter 213 

Skin,  Scaly,  Disease 266 

Snuffles  267 

Sore  Feet  or  Founder 267 

Sore  Throat  268 

Sore  Head 268 

Sows,  Brood,  Care  of 225 

Sow,  Brood,  Motherly  Disposition 

Essential  222 

Sow,  Brood,  Selection 216 

Sow  at  Farrowing  Time 285 

Sow,  Lard  Type 218 

Sows  with  Litters,  Suitable  Rations  for. 226 

Sows,  Pregnant,  Feeding 225 

Staggers,  Blind  249 

Stomach,  Blood  from 250 

Stunted  Pigs 268 

Suitable  Rations  for  Sows  with 

Litters 226 

Swine  Plague  and  Cholera 254 

Swine  Production 213-233 

Symptoms  to  Diseases,  General. .  .234-246 


Tail,   Cancer   in 250 

Teeth,   Removing    223 


440 


THE   RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


PAGE. 

Throat,  Sore 268 

Thumps    268 

Treatment  for  Diseases 247-272 

Tuberculosis  269 

Turning  Out  of  Rectum 254 

Types  and  Breeds 214,  217 

U 
Udder,  Inflamed   259 


W 

PAGE. 

Warts    271 

Water  Essential  to  Hogs 229 

Weaning  and  Growing  Pigs 228 

Weight  of  Pigs  to  Feed  Consumed..  ..214 

White    Bristle    271 

Womb,    Inflamed    259 

Worms   271 

Wounds  and  Cuts 272 


Vomiting    271       Yellows    272 


POULTRY  CHICKENS 


PAGE. 

Accounting,    System 321 

Alfalfa    292 

Animal  Feed 305 

Animal  and  Green  Feeds 312 

Antiseptic  in  Water 291 

Apoplexy 332 

Aspergillosis     332 


Bad  Traits  Are  Inherited 289 

Balance   Sheet    '. 325 

Board  Floor  282 

Bone,  Cut 292 

Bound  Crop   336 

Bran,  Mustard   312 

Bran  and  Oatmeal 304 

Bread  Crumbs  and   Eggs 304 

Bread  and  Milk 304 

Breed    for    Health 329 

Breed,    Keep    One 289 

Breed,  Selection  of 273 

Breed,  Strain  More  Important 277 

Breeding  for  Eggs 287 

Breeding  Stock,  Selection  and  Care... 297 

Breeds,    Classification 273 

Breeds,  Egg   273 

Breeds,    General    Purpose 273 

Breeds,  General  Purpose  Selection. ..  .273 

Breeds,  Meat    273 

Breeds,  Ornamental  273 

Breeds,  Time  Begin  Laying 287 

Bronchitis  or  Catarrh 333 

Brooder  and   Incubator,   Points   on 

Using 302 

Brooder   Pneumonia    332 

Brooders    303 

Bugs  and  Insects 292 

Bumblefoot   .  ..333 


Cabinet,    Oat-Sprouting 293 

Canker    .  ..333 


PAGE. 
Capon,  Teaching  to  Mother  Chicks. ..  .306 

Caponize,  When  to 308 

Caponizing  and  Capons 306 

Capons  and  Caponizing 306 

Care  of  Eggs,  Points  on 316 

Care  and  Feeding  Chicks " 304 

Care  of  Setting  Hen 299 

Catarrh  or  Bronchitis 333 

Catarrh,  Contagious  or  Roup 347 

Catarrh  of  the  Crop 333 

Catarrh   of   Stomach 334 

Charcoal    3^5,  313 

Chicken  Pox  or  Sore  Head 334 

Chickens,   Killing  and  Dressing 315 

Chickens,  Raising  297 

Chicks,  Feeding  and  Care 304 

Chicks,  Start  Right 330 

Chicks,  Taking  from  Nest 300 

Chicks,    Teach   to   Roost 305 

Chicks,  Teaching  Capons  to  Mother.. 306 

Chicks,  Toe-Mark    306 

Cholera     334 

Classification  of  Breeds 273 

Cleanliness  to  Prevent  Disease 329 

Coccidiosis     335 

Corn  Bread  and  Egg 304 

Cold  or  Influenza 343 

Colony  vs.  Intensive,  System 280 

Colony  Plan   282 

Comb,  White   350 

Condition   of  Health,   Legs   Show 329 

Conditions  to   Consider 328 

Contagious  Catarrh  or  Roup 347 

Corn 292 

Corn  Gluten   312 

Cracked  Corn,  Millet  Seed,  etc.... 304,  305 

Cracks  and  Crevices 282 

Cramming    314 

Crop  Bound    336 

Crop,  Catarrh  of 333 

Cut  Bone  292 


STOCK    INDEX 


441 


D 

PAGE. 

Darkened    Nests    282 

Diarrhea     336 

Diarrhea,   White 352 

Diphtheria   336 

Disease,  Cleanliness  in  Preventing. ..  .329 

Disease,  Feeding    to  Prevent 329 

Disease,  Housing  to  Prevent 329 

Disease,  Preventing  328 

Diseases  of  Liver 337 

Diseases,  Treatment  for 328-355 

Disinfect  House,  How  to 284 

Disinfectants     285 

Doses  and  Uses,   Remedies 330 

Drafts,  Prevent  in  House 279 

Drawing     316 

Dressing  and  Killing  Chickens 315 

Droppings,   Poultry 286 

Dropsy    338 

Dry  Feeding 309 

Dry   Feeding   Formulas 309 

Dry    Picking    315 

Dryness  and  Sunlight 278 

Dysentery    338 


Earthen  Floor   282 

Eating  Eggs  339 

Eating  Feathers    339 

Egg-Bound    338 

Egg  Breeds 273 

Egg  and  Corn  Bread 304 

Egg   Eating    339 

Egg  Passage,  Inflammation 341 

Egg  Production   287-297 

Egg  Production,  Five  "Gs" 287 

Egg  Rations  294 

Egg  Record.  Yearly 323 

Egg,  What  It  Takes  to  Make 291 

Eggs  and  Bread  Crumbs 304 

Eggs,  Breeding  for 287 

Eggs,  Feeding  for 289 

Eggs,  Fertile,  Spoil 287 

Eggs,  Grades  of 317 

Eggs,  Grading   317 

Eggs   for  Hatching 298 

Eggs,  Home  Preservation 319 

Eggs,    Infertile,    Produce 287 

Eggs,    Losses   from 287 

Eggs,    Marketing    320 

Eggs,  Methods  of  Preserving 319 

Eggs,  Number  to  Hen  for  Hatching. .  .298 

Eggs,  Points  on  Care  of 316 

Eggs  and  Rolled  Oats 304 

Eggs,  Testing 298 

Examinations,    Post-Mortem 354 

Exercise  305 


rats  

Fattening,    Quick 


.292 
,313 


PAGE. 

Fattening,  Quick,  Feeds  for 314 

Favus    350 

Feather  Eating   339 

Feed,    Animal    305 

Feed,   Grain    304 

Feed,  Green  293,  304 

Feeding  and  Care  of  Chicks 304 

Feeding,  Dry   309 

Feeding  for  Eggs 289 

Feeding  Formulas,  Dry 309 

Feeding,    Frequency    of 305 

Feeding,  Mash 311 

Feeding,  Mash  Formulas 311 

Feeding  to  Prevent  Disease 329 

Feeding  Setting  Hen 300 

Feeding,  Systems  of 309 

Feeds,  Animal  and  Green 312 

Feeds,   Interchangeable    313 

Feeds,  Little  Chicks 304 

Feeds,    Miscellaneous 294,    311 

Feeds  for  Quick  Fattening 314 

Feeds,   Table   of 291 

Feeds,    Variety    Is    Important 294 

Females,  Number  of,  to  One  Male 298 

Fertile  Eggs  Spoil 287 

Five  "Gs"  in   Egg  Production 287 

Fixtures  and   Houses 277 

Flock,  Improve   287 

Floor,   Board    282 

Floor,  Earthen 282 

Floor  Space,  Housing 280 

Formulas,  Dry  Feeding 309 

Formulas,    Mash    Feeding 311 

Fowl,  Parts  of 327 

Fowl,   Skeleton  of 327 

Frequency  of  Feeding 305 

Fresh    Air,    Housing 280 


Gapes    339 

Gastritis   334 

General   Purpose  Breeds 273 

Gluten,    Corn 312 

Going  Light  1 ...  341 

Government   Whitewash    285 

Grades   of   Eggs 317 

Grading   Eggs    317 

Grain  Feed   304 

Grain  Substitutes    31 

Green    and    Animal    Feeds 312 

Green  Feed 293,  304 

Grit   305,  313 

H 

Hatching,  Eggs  for 298 

Hay   312 

Head,   Sore 33 

Health,    Breed   for 32 

Health,  Indications  of 32 

Hen,  Laying,  How  to  Select 28? 


442 


THE   RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


PAGE. 

Hen,  Number  of  Eggs  for  Hatching. .  .298 

Hen,  Setting,  Care  of 299 

Hen,  Setting,   Feeding 300 

Hen,   Testing,    Hatching 299 

Hens,    Give    a    Home 278 

Hens,  How  to  Make  Lay  in  Winter. .  .295 

Hens    vs.    Incubators 300 

Hens,   Old,   Cull   Out 287 

Home,   Give  Hens 278 

Home    Preservation    of    Eggs 319 

Home-Made    Testers 299 

House,  How  to  Disinfect 284 

House.  Keep  Clean 279 

House,  Keep  Free  from  Vermin 280 

House,  Keep  Ventilated  but  Prevent 

Drafts  279 

House,  Make  Comfortable 278 

House,  Make  Convenient 278 

House,  Make  Light  and  Dry 278 

House,  Need  Not  Be  Expensive 280 

House,  Open  Front 282 

House,  Points  on  Cleaning 282 

Houses  and  Fixtures,  Poultry 277 

Houses,  Location   277 

Housing 278 

Housing,  Floor  Space 280 

Housing,    Fresh    Air 280 

Housing,  Keep  in  Mind 280 

Housing  to  Prevent  Disease 329 

How  to  Make  Hens  Lay  in  Winter ...  .295 
How  to  Select  Laying  Hens 287 

I 

Incubation  300 

Incubation,    Natural    299 

Incubator  and   Brooder,    Points  on 

Using    302 

Incubators  vs.  Hens 300 

Indigestion    341 

Infertile  Eggs,  Produce 287 

Inflammation  of  Egg  Passage 341 

Influenza  or  Cold 343 

Insect  Powder  299 

Insects  and  Bugs 292 

Intensive  vs.  Colony  System 280 

Inventory  Sheet 325-326 

K 
Killing  and  Dressing  Chickens 315 


Laying  Hen,  How  to  Select 287 

Leg,  Scaly   349 

Leg   Weakness    343 

Legs  Show  Condition 329 

Lice 344 

Liver  Diseases 337 

Location  of  Houses 277 

Losses  from  Eggs 287 


M 

PAGE. 

Magnifying   Tester    299 

Male,  Number  of  Females  to 298 

Marketing,    Cooperative 321 

Marketing  Eggs    320 

Marketing   Eggs,   Commission 

Merchants 320 

Marketing  Eggs,  Consumer 320 

Marketing  Eggs,  Parcel  Post 320 

Marketing  Eggs,  Retailer 320 

Marketing  Eggs,  Through  Creamery.  .321 

Marketing  Poultry  and  Products 314 

Mash   Feeding   311 

Mash  Feeding  Formulas 311 

Material   for    Roosts 282 

Meat    Breeds    273 

Methods  of  Preserving  Eggs 319 

Milk    305 

Milk  and  Bread 304 

Milk,   Skim    292 

Mineral  Matter    .293 

Miscellaneous   Feeds 294,   311 

Mites  345 

Molting    297 

Monthly  Sheet  323 

Monthly   Summary   Sheet 324 

Mustard    311 

Mustard  Bran 312 

Mustard  Greens 311 

N 

Natural  Incubation iiO!» 

Nests    282,  296 

Nest,  Taking  Chicks  from 300 

o 

Oatmeal  and  Bran 304 

Oats,    Sprouted 293 

Oat-Sprouting  Cabinet   293 

Old  Hens,  Cull  Out 287 

Open  Front  House 282 

Ornamental  Breeds   273 


Packing    316 

Parts  of  a  Fowl 327 

Picking,  Dry 315 

Pip     347 

Plumping   316 

Pneumonia,  Brooder   332 

Points  on  Care  of  Eggs 316 

Points  on  Cleaning  House 282 

Points    to    Remember    in    Using    Incu- 
bator and  Brooder 302 

Post-Mortem  Examinations    354 

Poultry  Crop— Excels  All  but  Corn 273 

Poultry  Droppings  286 

Poultry  Houses  and  Fixtures 277 

Poultry  Raising   273-327 

Powder,   Insect    299 


STOCK    INDEX 


443 


PAGE. 

Practical  Suggestions  from  World 

Over    295 

Preservation  of  Eggs,  Home 319 

Preserving    Eggs,    Methods 319 

Preventing  Disease    328 

Prevention,   Value    of 328 

Production    Eggs 287-297 

Products  of  Poultry,  Marketing 314 

Protein   29 1 

Pure  Bred  Stock  Best. .  .  .277 


PAGE. 

Strain  More  Important  Than  Breed... 277 

Substitutes,  Grain  313 

Suggestions   on    Laying,    From   World 

Over    295 

Summary  Sheet,  Monthly 324 

Summary  Sheet,  Yearly 325 

Sunlight  and  Dryness 278 

Systems  of  Feeding 309 

System  of   Poultry   Accounting 321 


Q 
Quick   Fattening   313 


R 

Raising  Chickens    297 

Raising  Poultry   273-329 

Ration,  Varied,  Important 313 

Rations,  Egg 294 

Rats  282 

Remedies,  Simple   330 

Remedies,  Uses  and  Doses 330 

Rheumatism    347 

Rolled  Oats  and  Eggs 304 

Roost,  Teach  Chicks  to 305 

Roosters,    Dispose   of 287 

Roosters,  Keep  No  Extra 289 

Roosts    282 

Roup  or  Contagious  Catarrh 347 


Scalding   3J5 

Scaly  Leg   349 

Scraps,  Table  312 

Selection  of  Breed 273 

Selection  and  Care  of  Breeding  Stock.  .297 

Selection,   Egg  Breeds 277 

Selection,   Meat   Breeds 277 

Selection,  Ornamental  Breeds 277 

Setting  Hen,  Care  of 299 

Setting  Hen,  Feeding 300 

Sheet,  Balance   325 

Sheet  Inventory 325-326 

Sheet,  Monthly   323 

Sheet,  Monthly  Summary 324 

Sheet,  Yearly    324-325 

Sheet,    Yearly    Summary 325 

Shrinkage    316 

Silage    312 

Simple   Remedies    330 

Skeleton  of  Fowl 327 

Skim    Milk    ' 292 

Soil     277 

Sore  Head  or  Chicken  Pox 334 

Sprouted  Oats 293 

Start  Chicks  Right 330 

Stock,  Pure  Bred  Best 277 

Stomach,  Catarrh  of 334 


Table  of  Feeds 291 

Table  Scraps   312 

Tester,   Magnifying    299 

Temperature     278 

Testers,  Home-Made 299 

Testing  Eggs  298 

Testing    Hen,    Hatching 299 

Time  Breeds  Begin  Laying 287 

Toe-Mark  Chicks   306 

Traits,    Bad,    Are    Inherited 289 

Treatment  for  Diseases 328-355 

Tuberculosis     349 

U 
Uses  and   Doses,   Remedies 330 


V 

Value  of  Prevention 328 

Varied   Ration   Important 313 

Variety    Is    Important,    Feeds 294 

Ventilated,    Keep    House 279 

Vermin,    Keep    House    Free   from 280 

Vertigo  350 

W 

Walls,    House    282 

Water    ....305 

Water,  Give  Plenty 291 

Water,  Keep  Clean 291 

Water,  Keep  Warm  in  Winter 291 

Water,   Put  Antiseptic  in 291 

Weakness    of    Legs 343 

Weights  in  Pounds 273 

What  It  Takes  to  Make  Egg 291 

Wheat 293 

When    to    Caponize 308 

White  Comb  350 

White    Diarrhea     353 

Whitewash,  Government   285 

Whitewasher    286 

Winter,  How  to  Make  Hens  Lay 295 

Winter,   Keep   Water   Warm 291 

Worms   352 

Y 

Yearly    Egg    Record 323 

Yearly    Sheet .'524-325 

Yearly  Summary  Sheet 325 


444 


THE   RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


TURKEYS 


Age  of  Hens 

Amount  to  Feed 

Artificial  Brooding 365 


360 
369 


B 

Backward  Jerk,  Breaking  Neck  with.. 372 

Bath,  Dust 365 

Beheading    373 

Black    357 

Blackhead    376 

Blackhead,  Preventive  Treatment  for.. 376 

Blood,  Dried 369 

Bourbon  Red   357 

Bowel  Trouble 377 

Breaking  Neck  with  Backward  Jerk.. 372 

Breed,    Selection    of   a 356 

Breeding    359 

Breeding  Stock,  Care  of 361 

Breeding  Stock,  Practical  Suggestions 

for   Selecting    360 

Breeding  Stock,  Selection  of 359 

Bronze  Turkey    357 

Brood  and  Mother,  Care  of 366 

Brooding,   Artificial    365 

Brooding,   Natural   365 

Broods,  Two,  in  One  Season 365 

Buff   .  357 


Care  of  Breeding  Stock 361 

Care  of  Brood  and  Mother 366 

Care  of  Eggs 363 

Care  of  Setters,  Rules  for 365 

Characteristics,    Profitable    Market 360 

Charcoal     368 

Charcoal  and  Grit 365 

Chickens,  Do  Not  House  with 359 

Chicken    Pox 377 

Cold  Climates,  Good  House  for 359 

Condition  of  Stock  and  Feeding 361 

Confinement    371 

Coop,  Requirements  for 367 

Coops 366 

Coops,  Hare,  Sufficiently  Large 366 

Coops,  Old  367 

Coop  for  Poults 359 

Corn    371 

Crop,  Impaction  of 378 


D 

Dampness  Injures  Poults 367 

Diphtheria     377 

Disease,  Liver   379 

Diseases  of  Turkeys,  Treatment  for... 376 


PAGE. 

Domestic  Hens,  Hatching  by 364 

Dressing     373 

Dried   Blood   '. 369 

Dry-Picking    373 

Dust  Bath    365 

Dusting  Hens    365 


Egg   Production,    Condition   for 371 

Eggs,  Care  of 363 


Fall  Feeding 371 

Fasten  Hen  on  Nest  at  Hatching  Time. 365 

Fattening     371 

Feed,  Amount  to 369 

Feed,   Green    369 

Feed  Wandering  Flocks  Once  a  Day.  .  .370 

Feed,    When    to,    Little    Poults 369 

Feeding    368 

Feeding    371 

Feeding,   Follow   Nature   in 368 

Feeding,   Hand,  Important 369 

Feeding  for  Market 371 

Feeding  and  Stock,  Condition  of 361 

Feeding,  Various  Methods 368 

Feeding  in  Wet  Weather 370 

Feeds     371 

Feeds   for   Older   Poults 370 

Feeds  Used  at  First 368 

Females  to  Male,  Number  of 360 

Food  and  Water..  ..365 


Gapes    378 

Gapes,   Preventive  Treatment   for 378 

Good  House  for  Cold,  Climates 359 

Grain,   Poor,  Avoid... 370 

Green    Feed    369 

Grit    368 

Grit  and  Charcoal 365 


H 

Hand   Feeding,    Important 369 

Handle  Poults,  How  to 366 

Hatching    364 

Hatching  by  Domestic  Hens 364 

Hatching  with    Incubators 364 

Hatching  Time,   Fasten    Hen   on    Nest 

at    365 

Hatching  by  Turkey  Hens 364 

Hens,  Age  of 360 

Hens  to  Breed,  Kinds  of 360 

Hens,  Kinds  of,  to  Select 359 


STOCK    INDEX 


445 


PAOK. 

Hens  on  Nest,  Fasten,  at  Hatching 

Time    365 

Hens,  Turkey,  Hatching  by 364 

Hiding  of  Nests,  To  Prevent 364 

House,  Do  Not,  with  Chickens 359 

House,  Good,  for  Cold  Climates 359 

Housing   357 


Impaction  of  Crop 378 

In-Breeding    360 

Incubation,   Time    Required  for 364 

Incubators,  Hatching  with 364 

Indications    of   Value 360 


K 

Killing    372 

Kinds  of  Hens  to  Breed . .' 360 

Kinds  of  Hens  to  Select 359 

Kinds  of  Males  to  Select 359 


Laying    361 

Leg  Weakness 378 

Lice  and  Mites 378 

Limber    Neck    379 

Little  Poults,  When  to  Feed 369 

Liver  Disease  379 

Liver  Disease,  Preventive  Treatment.  .379 


M 

Male,  Number  of  Females  to 360 

Mates  to  Select,  Kind  of 359 

Market  Characteristics,  Profitable 360 

Market,  Feeding  for 371 

Marketing    372 

Meat    369 

Methods  Used   372 

Mites  and  Lice 378 

Mother  and  Brood,  Care  of 366 


N  i 

Narragansett    357 

Natural  Brooding  365 

Nature  Follow,  in  Feeding 368 

Neck,  Limber 379 

Neglect 369 

Nests,    Preparing    363 

Nests,  To  Prevent  Hiding  of 364 

Nests,  Separated,  Keep 364 

Nests,   Turkey 363 

New  Blood,  Turkeys  Demand 36 

Number  of  Eggs  for  a  Setting 365 

Number  of  Females  to  Male 360 


PAGE. 

Older   Poults,  Feeds  for 370 

Opportunity    for    Profit 356 

Overdoing     359 


Packing    373 

Packing  One  Bird 373 

Packing  Several  Together 373 

Pairing   353 

Places,  Roosting 351 

Plumping    373 

Poor  Grain,  Avoid 370 

Poults,  Coop  for 359 

Poults,    Dampness    Injures 367 

Poults,  to   Eat,  Teaching 366 

Poults,  How  to  Handle 366 

Poults,  Little,  When  to  Feed 369 

Poults,  Older,  Feeds  for 370 

Poults,  Raising   366 

Practical   Suggestions   for   Selecting 

Breeding  Stock 360 

Preparing  Nests   363 

Prevent  to,  Hiding  of  Nests 364 

Prevent    Wandering,   To 363 

Production,  Condition  for  Egg 371 

Profit,  Opportunity  for 356 


R 

Raising   Poults    366 

Range    361 

Record  of  Nests,  Keeping 364 

Requirements  for  Coop 367 

Roosting  Places 361 

Roup   380 

Rules  for  Care  of  Setters 365 

Runs    367 


Scalding  373 

Scaly  Leg  380 

Selecting  Breeding  Stock,  Practical 

Suggestions  for 360 

Selection  of  a  Breed 356 

Selection  of  Breeding  Stock 359 

Several  Together,  Packing 373 

Sitting,  Number  of  Eggs  for  a 365 

Slate  Turkey  357 

Special  Care,  Time  for 369 

Standard  Weights  of  Turkeys 356 

Sticking  and  Stunning 372 

Stock  and  Feeding,  Conditions  of 361 

Stock,  Selection  of  Breeding 359 

Stock,  Turkeys  370 

Stunning  and  Sticking 372 

Suggestions,  Practical,  for  Selecting 

Breeding  Stock  360 

Sun's  Rays  367 


,446 


THE   RURAL    EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


PAGE. 

Tape  Worm   3S 

Teaching  Poults  to   Eat 366 

Time  Required  for  Incubation 364 

Times  for  Special  Care 369 

Tuberculosis  38° 

Turkey  Hens,  Hatching  by 364 

Turkey  Nests 363 

Turkey  Raising,  Valuable  Points  for 

Successful    374 

Turkeys     356-380 

Turkeys    Demand    New    Blood 360 

Turkeys,  Standard  Weights  of 356 

Turkeys,  Stock   370 


V 

PAGE. 

Valuable  Points  for  Successful  Turkey 

Raising   374 

Value,  Indications  of 360 

W 
Wandering  Flocks,  Feed,  Once  a  Day.. 370 

Wandering,   To   Prevent 363 

Water    368 

Water   and    Food 365 

Weakness,  Leg    378 

Weights  of  Turkeys,  Standard 356 

Wet   Weather,   Feeding  in 370 

White    357 

White  Comb  380 


DUCKS  AND  GEESE 


PAGE. 

African    Geese 395 

Alfalfa  for  Geese 401 

Artificial  Incubation 385 

Aylesburys    382 

B 

Breeders,  Geese,  Feeding 397 

Breeding    384 

Breeding  Ducks,  Feed  for 390 

Breeding  Stock,  Care  of 384 

Breeds,   Common    381 

Breeds,  Egg  381 

Breeds,  Meat   381 

Breeds,  Ornamental 381 

Brooding    386 

Brooding  with  Hens 386 


Canadian  Geese 396 

Care  of  Breeding  Stock 384 

Care  of   Goslings 398 

Caring  and  Feeding,  Dont's 393 

Chinese  Geese    396 

Common  Breeds  381 

Condition,   How  to  Tell ..392 

D 

Diseases  of  Ducks,  Treatment 394 

Diseases  of  Geese 402 

Don'ts  in  Caring  for  and  Feeding  Ducks. 393 

Down,   Removing 392 

Drake,  How  to  Tell 384 

Dressing  and  Killing  Geese 401 

Ducklings,  Feeding   387 

Ducks     ..381-394 


PAGE. 

Ducks,  Breeding,  Feed  for 390 

Ducks,  Handling 387 

Ducks,  Laying  391 


Egg  Breeds    381 

Eggs,    Fertile   and    Infertile 386 

Eggs  for   Hatching 385 

Eggs,  Number  to  Hen 385 

Eggs,  Testing 386 

Egyptian  Geese  396 

Embden  Geese  395 


Fattening  Geese   399 

Fattening  Geese,  Watertown  Method.. 399 

Fattening  Ration    388 

Feed  for  Breeding  Ducks 390 

Feed  for  Geese,  How  to  Make 400 

Feeding  Breeders,  Geese 397 

Feeding  and  Caring,  Don'ts 393 

Feeding  Ducklings  387 

Feeding  Ducklings,  Hours  of 390 

Feeding  Methods    387 

Feeds  for  Geese 400 

Feeds  for  Growing  Goslings 398 

Females,  Number  to  Male 384 

Fertile  and  Infertile  Eggs 386 


Gander,  Number  Geese  to 397 

Geese   395-402 

Geese,  Alfalfa  for 401 

Geese,  Diseases  of 402 

Geese,    Fattening    399 

Geese,  Fattening,  Watertown  Method.. 399 
Geese,    Feeding    Breeders 397 


STOCK    INDEX 


447 


I'ACK. 

Geese,  Feeds  for 400 

Geese,  How  to  Feed 400 

Geese,  Killing  and  Dressing 401 

Geese,  Management  of 396 

Geese,  Marketing    401 

Geese,  Mating   :!D7 

Geese,    Mating  and    Setting 397 

Geese,   Number  to  Gander 397 

Geese,  Setting   :!<)7 

Goslings,    Care    of 398 

Goslings,    Growing,    Feed    for 398 

Growing  Goslings,  Feed  for 398 

H 

Hatching  Eggs    385 

Hens,   Brooding  with '...386 

Hens,   Hatching  Ducks  with 385 

Hours  of  Feeding  Ducklings 390 

Housing   382 

Housing   Geese    396 

How    to    Kill 392 


PAQ1L 

Mating    Geese    :;;i  r 

Mating  and  Setting  Geese :;;i7 

Meat  Breeds :;>  i 

Methods,    Feeding.. 

Muscovys     

O 
Ornamental  Breeds   .  ..881 


Pekins     ..............................  381 

Picking     .............................  392 

Plumping     ..........................  392 

Preparing  for  Market  .................  392 


Ration,  Fattening  .....................  388 

Removing    Down    ....................  392 

Rouens    ..........  ..382 


Incubation   385 

Incubation,  Geese,  Time  of :....397 

Indian    Runners    382 

K 
Killing  and  Dressing  Geese 401 


Setting    Geese    397 

Stock,   Selecting    384 


Testing  Eggs  386 

Time    for    Incubation 385 

Toulouse  Geese 395 


LayingDucks    391      Varieties    of    Geese . 


.395 


M 

Male,  Number  of  Females  to 384 

Management  of  Geese 396 

Market,   Preparing  for 392 

Marketing   Geese    401 


W 

Water  for  Geese 396 

Watertown  Method  for  Fattening 

Geese    399 

When  to  Kill 392 


GENERAL  STOCK  INFORMATION 


PAGE. 

Agricultural   Experiment  Stations 404 

B 

Bibliography,   Live   Stock ...406 

Breeders'    Association,    National    Live 
Stock  403 


Cattle    Associations 403 

Chick  Starter   408 

Condition    Powder    for    Horses    and 

Cattle    407 


D 

PAGE. 

Departments  and  Institutions,  Agricul- 
tural, State  and  National 404 

Doses  and  Uses  of  Stable  Medicines, 
Over  Fifty  409 


Egg    Producer    409 

Experiment  Stations,  Agricultural 404 


General  Live  Stock  Information. .  .403-413 


448 


THE   RURAL   EFFICIENCY    GUIDE 


H 


Horse   Associations. 


PAGE. 
..403 


PAGE. 

Normal  Pulse  Beats 407 

Normal    Temperatures 407 


I 

Information,  General  Live  Stock.  .403-413 
Institutions  and  Departments,  Agricul- 
tural, State  and  National 404 


People's  Table  for  Liquid  Medicines.  .407 
Pulse    Beat,    Normal 407 


Liquid   Medicines,  Table  for 407 

Live    Stock    Bibliography 406 

Live   Stock  Breeders'  Associations, 

Live   Stock    403 

Live  Stock,  General  Information 403-413 

Live  Stock  Periodicals 406 

M 

Medicines,    Stables,    Uses    and    Doses, 

Over   Fifty    409 

Medicines,  Table  for  Liquid 407 

Milk  Producer   408 

Miscellaneous   407-413 

N 

National  Live  Stock  Breeders'  Asso- 
ciations   403 

National  and  State  Agricultural  Depart- 
ments and  Institutions 404 


Sheep    Associations 403 

Stable    Medicines,    Uses    and    Doses, 

Over    Fifty    409 

State  and  National  Agricultural  Depart- 
ments and  Institutions 404 

Stock  Breeders'  Associations,  National 

Live  Stock 403 

Stock  Foods  408 

Stock,    Live,    Bibliography 406 

Stock,  Live,  General  Information.  .403-413 

Stock  Periodicals,   Live 406 

Swine  Association    ..403 


Table  for  Liquid  Medicines,  People's.  .407 
Temperatures,  Normal   407 

U 

Uses  and   Doses  of  Over  Fifty  Stable 
Medicines    .  .  .409 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA 
BRANCH    OF    THE    COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 


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